Blood-cadmium in hypertensives and normotensives

Influence of serum ferritin combined with blood cadmium concentrations on blood pressure and hypertension: From the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have suggested that cadmium (Cd) exposure and serum ferritin levels may influence the development of hypertension.

OBJECTIVE

We evaluated whether the association between blood Cd levels and the development of hypertension could be modified by serum ferritin levels in a representative sample of the adult population of South Korea.

METHODS

We used data from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2008-2012), a nationally representative, cross-sectional, population-based study. We included 5752 adults aged 19 years and older who had records of blood Cd and ferritin levels and blood pressure measurements. Multiple logistic regression was used to examine the association between Cd exposure and the development of hypertension, as well as the modifying effects of serum ferritin.

RESULTS

Men had higher levels of serum ferritin, and women had higher levels of Cd. Smoking in men was significantly associated with high blood pressure and risk of hypertension. Significantly fewer women were smokers, and the combination of abnormal serum ferritin levels and high Cd levels was significantly associated with high systolic blood pressure [odds ratio (OR) = 2.11; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.04-4.28], high diastolic blood pressure (OR = 2.07; 95% CI = 1.04-4.12), and increased hypertension risk (OR = 1.83; 95% CI = 1.03-3.25) in women who never smoked.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results provide further evidence that individuals with abnormal serum ferritin levels should limit their exposure to Cd to prevent hypertension.

Does Cadmium Contribute to the Development of Renal Parenchymal Hypertension?

In our study we investigated 36 out-patients with renal disease, 22 of whom were hypertensive. In all patients proteinuria was present (4.30 ± 5.05 g protein/day) and kidney diseases were verified by renal biopsy. Blood cadmium in non-smokers was significantly (p< 0.05) lower than in smokers. We found a positive correlation between cadmium-concentration of blood and urine (p<0.01, R = 0.44) and between cadmium-concentration of blood and blood uric acid (p< 0.01, R = 0.44). Proteinuria was weakly correlated with cadmium concentration of urine (p<0.05, R = 0.35). Patients with renal hypertension showed a significantly higher (p< 0.05) urine cadmium excretion per day (1.60 ± 1.12 μg/day) compared to normotensives with a disease of the kidney (1.14 ± 1.47 μg/day). Our results indicate that cadmium may be involved in the development of hypertension in patients with renal disease.

The association between cadmium and lead exposure and blood pressure among workers of a smelting industry: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Lead and cadmium are harmful heavy metals that are used for a variety of occupational purposes. Considering their potentially hazardous effects on health, studies on the association between exposure to these two heavy metals and health disorders have been actively conducted. This study aimed to determine the association between blood lead and cadmium levels and blood pressure in workers exposed to lead and cadmium in a smelter.

METHODS

Nine hundred and sixty-three male workers who worked in a smelter, and underwent medical examinations at the Ulsan University Hospital between January 1 and December 31, 2014, were selected as participants. Among them, 310 subjects whose data on height, weight, blood pressure, fasting blood glucose, lipid profile, and blood lead and cadmium levels were available and who answered the questionnaire were selected as the final participants. We investigated the drinking habit, smoking status, exercise adequacy, and family history of hypertension of these workers using formal questionnaires. A statistical analysis was conducted using Student's t-test, analysis of variance, and linear or logistic regression.

RESULTS

The association between blood lead and cadmium levels and blood pressure was analyzed through statistical adjustment of the risk factors of hypertension. Results showed an association between blood cadmium level and blood pressure elevation. However, blood lead level was found to be not correlated with blood pressure elevation.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows the association between blood cadmium level and systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) elevation.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

IRB No. 2017-03-037. Retrospectively Registered 30 March 2017.

The association between blood pressure and blood cadmium in a Chinese population living in cadmium polluted area

Cadmium exposure may be associated with high risk of hypertension. But inconsistent results have been reported. In this study, the association of blood pressure (BP) with blood cadmium (BCd) and the possible influencing factors were investigated. A total of 181 persons (71 men and 110 women) living near a cadmium smelter participated in this study. The participants completed a questionnaire and BP, BCd and related biochemical indicators were measured. The geometric mean of BCd was 3.84μg/L and 3.32μg/L for women and men. The systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure both increased with the increasing of BCd. The BP in women was positively correlated with BCd (p<0.05). The BCd level of participants with hypertension was obvious higher (+28%) than those with normal BP. The prevalence of hypertension was increased with the increasing of BCd, in particular to women (χ(2)=3.896, p=0.048). Cadmium level in blood was associated with elevation in blood pressure, especially for women.

Association of blood cadmium with hypertension in the Korean general population: analysis of the 2008-2010 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data

INTRODUCTION

We present data from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2008-2010 regarding the association between blood cadmium levels and blood pressure in a representative sample of the adult South Korean population.

METHODS

We restricted the analysis to participants ≥20 years of age who completed the health examination survey, including blood cadmium measurements (n = 5,919). We performed multivariate linear regression analyses to estimate adjusted mean differences in diastolic and systolic blood pressure associated with doubling of, or quartiles of, cadmium levels after covariate adjustment. We calculated odds ratios (ORs) for hypertension and prehypertension for log-transformed blood cadmium levels and quartiles thereof after covariate adjustment.

RESULTS

We observed a twofold increase in blood cadmium associated with 0.755 and 1.007 mmHg increases in diastolic pressure in women and men, respectively. We observed 2.243 and 1.975 mmHg increases in diastolic pressure in women and men, respectively, in the highest compared with the lowest quartile of blood cadmium. Systolic pressure showed results similar to those of diastolic pressure. Based on ORs, a doubling of blood cadmium resulted in 18.6% and 31.5% increases in the risk of hypertension in women and men, respectively. Doubling of blood cadmium resulted in a 23.5% and 22.9% increase in the risk of prehypertension in women and men, respectively.

CONCLUSION

We found a significant association between blood cadmium levels and elevated blood pressure regardless of the type of variable (continuous or categorical) in women and men with a lower blood cadmium level compared to previous Korean studies. This study also showed that blood cadmium levels were robust risk factors for prehypertension in both women and men.

The influence of iron stores on cadmium body burden in a Thai population

Cadmium is a toxin of increasing public health concern due to its presence in most human foodstuffs and in cigarette smoke. Exposure to cadmium leads to tissue bioaccumulation and, in particular, has nephrotoxic effects. The aim of the present study was to investigate the association between cadmium body burden and iron stores in a Thai population. A total of 182 healthy adult Thai subjects of both genders (89 males, 93 females) aged between 18 and 57 years and weighing 40-95 kg were included in this study. The total amounts of cadmium excreted in urine over 2 h (microg/g creatinine) were used as an index of long-term cadmium exposure. Quantitation of cadmium was performed using electrothermal (graphite furnace) atomic absorption spectrometry. The urinary cadmium excreted displayed a normal frequency distribution. The average urinary cadmium level did not exceed the WHO maximum tolerable internal dose for the non-exposed population (2 microg/g creatinine). Body iron stores reflected by serum ferritin levels did not show any correlation with cadmium burden in both males and females, although a relatively stronger influence of body iron store status on cadmium burden was shown in females. When the levels of serum ferritin were stratified into five levels (<20, 20-100, 101-200, 201-300, and >300 microg/l), a significant difference in total cadmium body burden was observed between females and males only in the group with a low level of serum ferritin of <20 microg/l. The cadmium body burden in females was about twice that in males in this group.

Postnatal cadmium exposure, neurodevelopment, and blood pressure in children at 2, 5, and 7 years of age

BACKGROUND

Adverse health effects of cadmium in adults are well documented, but little is known about the neuropsychological effects of cadmium in children, and no studies of cadmium and blood pressure in children have been conducted.

OBJECTIVE

We examined the potential effects of low-level cadmium exposure on intelligence quotient, neuropsychological functions, behavior, and blood pressure among children, using blood cadmium as a measure of exposure.

METHODS

We used the data from a multicenter randomized clinical trial of lead-exposed children and analyzed blood cadmium concentrations using the whole blood samples collected when children were 2 years of age. We compared neuropsychological and behavioral scores at 2, 5, and 7 years of age by cadmium level and analyzed the relationship between blood cadmium levels at 2 years of age and systolic and diastolic blood pressure at 2, 5, and 7 years of age.

RESULTS

The average cadmium concentration of these children was 0.21 microg/L, lower than for adults in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), but comparable to concentrations in children < 3 years of age in NHANES. Except for the California Verbal Learning Test for Children, there were no differences in test scores among children in different cadmium categories. For children with detectable pretreatment blood cadmium, after adjusting for a variety of covariates, general linear model analyses showed that at none of the three age points was the coefficient of cadmium on Mental Development Index or IQ statistically significant. Spline regression analysis suggested that behavioral problem scores at 5 and 7 years of age tended to increase with increasing blood cadmium, but the trend was not significant. We found no significant associations between blood cadmium levels and blood pressure.

CONCLUSION

We found no significant associations between background blood cadmium levels at 2 years of age and neurodevelopmental end points and blood pressure at 2, 5, and 7 years of age. The neuropsychological or hypertensive effects from longer background exposures to cadmium need further study.

Cadmium exposure and hypertension in the 1999-2004 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)

INTRODUCTION

Cadmium induces hypertension in animal models. Epidemiologic studies of cadmium exposure and hypertension, however, have been inconsistent.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to investigate the association of blood and urine cadmium with blood pressure levels and with the prevalence of hypertension in U.S. adults who participated in the 1999-2004 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES).

METHODS

We studied participants > or = 20 years of age with determinations of cadmium in blood (n = 10,991) and urine (n = 3,496). Blood and urine cadmium were measured by atomic absorption spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry, respectively. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure levels were measured using a standardized protocol.

RESULTS

The geometric means of blood and urine cadmium were 3.77 nmol/L and 2.46 nmol/L, respectively. After multivariable adjustment, the average differences in systolic and diastolic blood pressure comparing participants in the 90th vs. 10th percentile of the blood cadmium distribution were 1.36 mmHg [95% confidence interval (CI), -0.28 to 3.00] and 1.68 mmHg (95% CI, 0.57-2.78), respectively. The corresponding differences were 2.35 mmHg and 3.27 mmHg among never smokers, 1.69 mmHg and 1.55 mmHg among former smokers, and 0.02 mmHg and 0.69 mmHg among current smokers. No association was observed for urine cadmium with blood pressure levels, or for blood and urine cadmium with the prevalence of hypertension.

CONCLUSIONS

Cadmium levels in blood, but not in urine, were associated with a modest elevation in blood pressure levels. The association was stronger among never smokers, intermediate among former smokers, and small or null among current smokers. Our findings add to the concern of renal and cardiovascular cadmium toxicity at chronic low levels of exposure in the general population.

Association between exposure to cadmium and blood pressure in Japanese peoples

The authors studied the effects of environmental cadmium exposure on blood pressure (BP). Subjects 1140 men and 1713 women, aged > or =50 yr lived in three areas of Japan considered "unpolluted" by cadmium. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to evaluate relationships between hypertension/nonhypertension and cadmium concentrations in blood (B-Cd) or urine (U-Cd). Age, body mass index, drinking and smoking habits, and blood and urine chemistry data were incorporated into the model. Odds ratios for hypertension were significantly less than 1 in either gender when U-Cd was the indicator of cadmium exposure and hypertension was defined as systolic BP > or =140 mmHg and/or diastolic BP > or =90 mmHg. The results suggest a significant negative association between cadmium exposure and BP in inhabitants in Japan.

Effects of elements on blood pressure

This article present a comprehensive review of all known elements involved in blood pressure control. Data source was by computerized literature searches. A total of 28 elements have been documented as being involved in blood pressure control. The individual elements react directly and indirectly in a variety of metabolic and structural activities known to participate in blood pressure regulation. Reports from both experimental animal and human subjects are presented. The role of certain elements in blood pressure control is controversial. Conversely, important established functions of dosage, absorption, storage, and excretion of individual elements are known and are described in relation to blood pressure control. Some elements are pressor, whereas others are depressor in action, and this article demonstrates the important role elements play in the control of blood pressure.

Increased body cadmium burden in Chinese women without smoking and occupational exposure

To investigate the chronic low-level environmental cadmium and zinc exposure of Chinese women and find the relationships between these parameters and hypertension, 58 women without histories of smoking and occupational exposure were conducted into this cross-section study and divided into three groups: Group I: 24 normal healthy, Group II: 24 untreated essential hypertension, and Group III: 10 untreated nonessential hypertension women. The serum cadmium and daily urinary cadmium excretion of Group II (1.69 +/- 0.92 micrograms/L; 2.43 +/- 1.93 micrograms/d) were significantly higher than those of Group I (0.88 +/- 0.92 micrograms/L; 1.07 +/- 1.45 micrograms/d) as well as Group III (0.92 +/- 0.91 micrograms/L; 0.19 +/- 0.23 micrograms/d). The ratio of urinary zinc (micrograms)/urinary creatinine (g) of Group II (865.99 +/- 460.54 micrograms/g) was higher than that of Group I (622.39 +/- 250.96 micrograms/g). The ratio of urinary cadmium concentrations (micrograms)/urinary creatinine (g) of all healthy Chinese women was 1.30 +/- 1.67 which is higher than that of other nations in the world except Japanese. After adjusting age and body mass index, we found mean arterial pressure positively correlated with serum cadmium in all subjects (p = 0.0058). The mean arterial pressure also positively correlated with serum cadmium (p = 0.0017) as well as daily urinary cadmium excretion (p = 0.0088) in all women except the nonessential group. Both the ratios of urinary zinc (micrograms)/urinary creatinine (g) (p = 0.0165) and urinary cadmium (micrograms)/urinary creatinine (g) positively (p = 0.0246) related to mean arterial pressure in women of Group I and II.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Occupational exposure to lead and blood pressure: a study in 105 workers

A group of workers, occupationally exposed to lead and cadmium compounds (n = 53), was compared to a group of workers not exposed to these metals (n = 52). The average values of systolic, diastolic, and mean blood pressure were found to be higher in the exposed group (p less than 0.05). In contrast with the correlation between CdU and blood pressure, the correlation between PbB and systolic and mean blood pressure remained statistically significant after controlling for age and pulse rate (r = 0.22, p less than 0.05). The prevalence of potential hypertension (defined as systolic blood pressure greater than or equal to 160 mm Hg and/or diastolic blood pressure greater than or equal to 95 mm Hg and/or under treatment for hypertension) was higher in the exposed group, but the observed relative risk was not statistically significant: relative risk = 1.91 (95% confidence limits, 0.90-4.05). Furthermore, a significant correlation between PbB and Hgb (r = -0.28, p = 0.004) was observed. Differences in kidney function, as assessed in this study, were not detected.

Prevalence of hypertension among cadmium-exposed workers

In a retrospective study of 311 male workers in an alkaline battery factory, the relationship between exposure to cadmium oxide and hypertension has been investigated. Blood pressure measurements, taken by the same physician, were available for a 30-yr period. When age-matched groups of hypertensive and normotensive workers were compared, employment time was significantly longer (P = .0109) in the hypertensive group. This indicates a possible relationship between exposure to cadmium oxide and the development of hypertension.

Augmented depression and reduced excitability of the central nervous system (CNS) by cadmium in the rat

Reports indicating that low doses of cadmium caused vasodilation, but that larger quantities elicited a pressor response, apparently mediated by a CNS reflex, prompted an examination of cadmium-induced changes in CNS responsiveness and activity. Rats were injected intraperitoneally with either 2 mg/kg or 4 mg/kg of CdCl2 solution, after which the CNS was either depressed by pentobarbital or excited by strychnine at different dose levels. Cadmium treatment, administered before pentobarbital, decreased the time required for sleep induction and prolonged sleep duration at doses of either 20 mg/kg or 30 mg/kg: at 40 mg/kg only induction was affected and at 60 mg/kg neither was influenced. At a dosage of 60 micrograms/kg, strychnine caused convulsions in all control animals, but in none pretreated with CdCl2. When either 75 or 120 micrograms/kg of strychnine was used, cadmium at either dosage failed to prevent convulsions, although the onset was delayed and duration curtailed. The rapidity with which Cd modified CNS activity indicated that the effect can not depend upon cadmium-induced synthesis of metallothionine, but represents a direct effect of Cd on the CNS. Cadmium treatment did not substantially improve the survival of rats that convulsed when treated with strychnine.

Cardiovascular effects of potential occupational hazards

Cardiovascular effects of potential occupational hazards have received relatively little attention. The major inhalant occupational exposures of concern are carbon disulfide, nitrates, halogenated hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide. Occupational exposure to certain trace metals may also be associated with adverse cardiovascular effects. Of concern is potential toxicity from cobalt, antimony, lead, cadmium and arsenic. Potential physical hazards exist in association with noise, heat and radiofrequency radiation. In most instances, the data are suggestive rather than conclusive. Further epidemiologic studies with careful control for potentially complicating factors, such as baseline differences in blood pressure, cigarette smoking habits and age, are needed. In some areas where epidemiologic studies have provided clues, the mechanisms of action of potential occupational hazards require further basic scientific investigation.

Effect of cadmium on arterial blood pressure and lipid metabolism in rats

A total dose of 8 mg cadmium acetate/kg body weight was administered by repeated i.p. injection to female Wistar rats for 12 weeks. Slight, but significant, increases in blood pressure were recorded. The lipid concentration in serum and other tissues examined was not significantly affected, apart from a decrease in hepatic triglyceride. The blood cadmium (Cd) concentration was increased 10 times and Cd in the aortic wall was 4 times higher in treated rats. Cd affects hepatic lipid metabolism and it is considered that the increase in blood pressure is associated with accumulation of Cd in the arterial walls.

Blood cadmium levels in a general male population with special reference to smoking

Blood-cadmium (Cd-B) level, blood pressure, and several biological parameters in blood were measured in 440 men who were not occupationally exposed to cadmium and who had a detailed smoking history. No significant correlation was found between Cd-B and blood pressure. Among biological parameters, those known to be related to smoking appeared significantly correlated with Cd-B. Analysis of smoking history showed that Cd-B is strongly elevated in current smokers, with a dose-effect relationship between daily consumption of tobacco and Cd-B; moreover, exsmokers had significantly higher Cd-B than nonsmokers. This finding shows that Cd-B partly reflects past exposure to cadmium.

Method for the simultaneous determination of cadmium and zinc in whole blood by atomic absorption spectrophotometry and measurement in normotensive and hypertensive humans

A method is described for the analysis of whole blood cadmium and zinc by extraction and atomic absorption spectrophotometry, in which cadmium is analyzed using a graphite furnace, and zinc using an air-acetylene flame with a single slot burner, after dilution of the extract. Recoveries for cadmium and zinc were 100% and 106%, respectively. For cadmium the day-to-day and within-run coefficients of variation were all less than 13% at low concentrations (approximately 27 nmol/1) and 6% or less at high concentrations (approximately 89 nmol/1). For zinc the coefficients of variation for day-to-day and within-run analyses were less than 6% at low (approximately 76 mumol/1) and high concentrations (approximately 138 mumol/1). The sensitivity of the procedure is 0.5 nmol/1 for cadmium and 1.2 mu mol/1 for zinc. Whole blood from 72 normotensive volunteers, 56 treated hypertensives, and 15 untreated hypertensives were analyzed using this method. Cadmium levels were elevated in smokers but not significantly affected by age or sex. Zinc levels were higher in males than in females, but not significantly affected by smoking. Levels of cadmium and zinc were increased in treated hypertensives and greater still in untreated hypertensives. Significant elevations were found for cadmium in treated hypertensive females who smoked, treated and untreated hypertensive male non-smokers, and for the cadmium to zinc ratio in these later two groups.

Influence of dosage, consciousness, and nifedipine on the acute pressor response to intraperitoneally administered cadmium

The acute pressor effect of intraperitoneally administered cadmium was explored over the dose range 0.015-2 mg/kg in both pentobarbital-anesthetized and conscious rats. The former first respondent at 0.031 mg/kg, and successive doublings of that dosage increased the highest pressures attained in a stepwise fashion until a dosage of 0.25 mg/kg, the maximally effective quantity, was reached. Arterial pressure did not rise in conscious rats until a dose of 1 mg/kg, which gave the maximum response within the range examined. Heart-rate changes with Cd were slight, and rarely significant at a given dosage, but pentobarbital invariably caused tachycardia. Anesthetized rats thus gave a graded response, while conscious animals reacted in an all-or-none fashion. The increased pressor responsiveness of rats under pentobarbital can not be ascribed to its cardiac parasympatholytic effects, since sensitivity was not conferred upon conscious rats when pretreated with atropine at a dose producing even greater tachycardia than that caused by pentobarbital. Nifedipine, which blocks calcium entry into smooth muscle cells, prevented the pressor response to cadmium when given as pretreatment and terminated an ongoing response when give intercurrently. Possible mechanisms to account for the observed behavior are considered.

Mortality of Shipham residents: 40-year follow-up

The 1939 populations of Shipham, a village in Somerset with high soil-cadmium levels, and a nearby control village have been followed for 40 years. Death certificates were obtained for those who had died, and the mortality rates were compared with those for England and Wales. Small excesses of hypertensive, cerebrovascular, and genitourinary disease were noted in Shipman but not in the control village. These conditions have been associated wih cadmium toxicity, and so it is possible that cadmium had some influence on the disease pattern in Shipham; but if so, the effect was slight. By contrast, fewer deaths than expected from respiratory disease and cancers were observed in both villages. This gave rise to all-cause mortality rates in Shipham and the control village which were similar and well below the national average.

Additive statistical effects of cadmium and lead on heart-related disease in a North Carolina autopsy series

The association of heart-related mortality with tissue cadmium and lead in a study of autopsies performed on persons who resided in a soft-water, leached-soil area of North Carolina was examined. Liver cadmium concentrations and aortic lead level were indices of these elements. Both cadmium and lead levels had statistically significant correlations with cause of death (heart-related disease vs. non-heart-related disease, excluding cancer). Although cause of death was significantly associated with age, the association with cadmium and lead persisted after statistical adjustment for the effect of age. The combined effects of cadmium and lead provided sufficient information in an additive model to predict cause of death correctly for 80% of the cases, with age contributing insignificantly. These findings indicate the intimate relation of these two trace metals with increased risk of heart-related mortality, even in light of known conventional causes of such deaths.

An in-vivo study of renal cadmium and hypertension

A comparative study of renal cadmium burdens in a group of thirty hypertensive patients undergoing treatment and in a group of thirty matched controls is reported, both groups being volunteers selected from a non-occupationally exposed population. The aim of this study was to investigate the possible involvement of cadmium in the aetiology of hypertension at the chronic low levels of environmental exposure. Renal cadmium levels were measured in vivo, using the technique of partial-body neutron activation analysis. The results showed that the mean renal cadmium level in the hypertensive group [3.3 mg (SD 2.3)], was not significantly different from that [4.4 mg (SD 2.7)], in the normotensive group. Whether the level in the hypertensives depends on the treatment is open to question and will be the subject of further investigation. In addition, the results confirm that kidney cadmium levels are elevated in smokers.

Significance of blood cadmium concentrations in patients with renal disorders or essential hypertension and the normal population

Cadmium concentrations in whole blood have been determined in normal control subjects, in patients with untreated essential hypertension or with treated essential hypertension, and in those with acute or chronic renal disorders. High cadmium concentrations were not found in the patients with untreated essential hypertension. Most tobacco smokers were found to have high blood cadmium concentrations. When the mean cadmium concentrations from each group of patients were compared with those of the control subjects no significant differences were found. When the four groups were divided into smokers and non-smokers, however, a significantly higher mean value was found for the non-smoking renal patients in comparison with the non-smoking normal subjects. The marked increases in blood cadmium concentration in the patients with renal disorders may be attributed to impaired excretion.

Lead, copper, and cadmium in teeth of normal and mentally retarded children

Whole teeth obtained from handicapped children and from controls have been analysed for lead by anodic stripping voltammetry. No significant differences were found between the two groups. Teeth originating from the same patient showed systematic variations in lead content that are dependant on anatomical tooth type. The nature of this association is discussed. Analyses of sectioned teeth revealed, for cadmium and copper, unexpectedly large variations. High concentrations of cadmium found in the tips of deciduous incisor teeth indicate a probable contribution from maternal blood.

Blood cadmium level and hypertension in humans

Blood cadmium level was determined in 29 nontreated hypertensive male subjects and 29 controls. All were individually matched for sex, age, and smoking habits. No differences were found between hypertensives (3.3 +/- 0.4 ng/ml) and normotensives (2.6 +/- 0.4 ng/ml).