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Tenorio-Lopes L, Kinkead R. Sex-Specific Effects of Stress on Respiratory Control: Plasticity, Adaptation, and Dysfunction. Compr Physiol 2021; 11:2097-2134. [PMID: 34107062 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c200022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
As our understanding of respiratory control evolves, we appreciate how the basic neurobiological principles of plasticity discovered in other systems shape the development and function of the respiratory control system. While breathing is a robust homeostatic function, there is growing evidence that stress disrupts respiratory control in ways that predispose to disease. Neonatal stress (in the form of maternal separation) affects "classical" respiratory control structures such as the peripheral O2 sensors (carotid bodies) and the medulla (e.g., nucleus of the solitary tract). Furthermore, early life stress disrupts the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVH), a structure that has emerged as a primary determinant of the intensity of the ventilatory response to hypoxia. Although underestimated, the PVH's influence on respiratory function is a logical extension of the hypothalamic control of metabolic demand and supply. In this article, we review the functional and anatomical links between the stress neuroendocrine axis and the medullary network regulating breathing. We then present the persistent and sex-specific effects of neonatal stress on respiratory control in adult rats. The similarities between the respiratory phenotype of stressed rats and clinical manifestations of respiratory control disorders such as sleep-disordered breathing and panic attacks are remarkable. These observations are in line with the scientific consensus that the origins of adult disease are often found among developmental and biological disruptions occurring during early life. These observations bring a different perspective on the structural hierarchy of respiratory homeostasis and point to new directions in our understanding of the etiology of respiratory control disorders. © 2021 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 11:1-38, 2021.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luana Tenorio-Lopes
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, The University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Richard Kinkead
- Département de Pédiatrie, Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Université Laval, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
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Alstadhaug KB, Andreou AP. Caffeine and Primary (Migraine) Headaches-Friend or Foe? Front Neurol 2019; 10:1275. [PMID: 31849829 PMCID: PMC6901704 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.01275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The actions of caffeine as an antagonist of adenosine receptors have been extensively studied, and there is no doubt that both daily and sporadic dietary consumption of caffeine has substantial biological effects on the nervous system. Caffeine influences headaches, the migraine syndrome in particular, but how is unclear. Materials and Methods: This is a narrative review based on selected articles from an extensive literature search. The aim of this study is to elucidate and discuss how caffeine may affect the migraine syndrome and discuss the potential pathophysiological pathways involved. Results: Whether caffeine has any significant analgesic and/or prophylactic effect in migraine remains elusive. Neither is it clear whether caffeine withdrawal is an important trigger for migraine. However, withdrawal after chronic exposure of caffeine may cause migraine-like headache and a syndrome similar to that experienced in the prodromal phase of migraine. Sensory hypersensitivity however, does not seem to be a part of the caffeine withdrawal syndrome. Whether it is among migraineurs is unknown. From a modern viewpoint, the traditional vascular explanation of the withdrawal headache is too simplistic and partly not conceivable. Peripheral mechanisms can hardly explain prodromal symptoms and non-headache withdrawal symptoms. Several lines of evidence point at the hypothalamus as a locus where pivotal actions take place. Conclusion: In general, chronic consumption of caffeine seems to increase the burden of migraine, but a protective effect as an acute treatment or in severely affected patients cannot be excluded. Future clinical trials should explore the relationship between caffeine withdrawal and migraine, and investigate the effects of long-term elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl B. Alstadhaug
- Nordland Hospital Trust, Bodø, Norway
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Anna P. Andreou
- Headache Research, Wolfson CARD, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
- The Headache Centre, Guy's and St Thomas', NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
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Aaron S, Al Hashmi A. Parakinesia Brachialis Oscitans due to Brain Stem Infarct. DUBAI MEDICAL JOURNAL 2019. [DOI: 10.1159/000500497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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Yawning-Its anatomy, chemistry, role, and pathological considerations. Prog Neurobiol 2017; 161:61-78. [PMID: 29197651 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2017.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Revised: 10/29/2017] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Yawning is a clinical sign of the activity of various supra- and infratentorial brain regions including the putative brainstem motor pattern, hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus, probably the insula and limbic structures that are interconnected via a fiber network. This interaction can be seen in analogy to other cerebral functions arising from a network or zone such as language. Within this network, yawning fulfills its function in a stereotype, reflex-like manner; a phylogenetically old function, preserved across species barriers, with the purpose of arousal, communication, and maybe other functions including respiration. Abnormal yawning with ≥3 yawns/15min without obvious cause arises from lesions of brain areas involved in the yawning zone, its trajectories causing a disconnection syndrome, or from alteration of network activity by physical or metabolic etiologies including medication.
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Neural mechanism for hypothalamic-mediated autonomic responses to light during migraine. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E5683-E5692. [PMID: 28652355 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1708361114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Migraineurs avoid light because it intensifies their headache. However, this is not the only reason for their aversion to light. Studying migraineurs and control subjects, we found that lights triggered more changes in autonomic functions and negative emotions during, rather than in the absence of, migraine or in control subjects, and that the association between light and positive emotions was stronger in control subjects than migraineurs. Seeking to define a neuroanatomical substrate for these findings, we showed that, in rats, axons of retinal ganglion cells converge on hypothalamic neurons that project directly to nuclei in the brainstem and spinal cord that regulate parasympathetic and sympathetic functions and contain dopamine, histamine, orexin, melanin-concentrating hormone, oxytocin, and vasopressin. Although the rat studies define frameworks for conceptualizing how light triggers the symptoms described by patients, the human studies suggest that the aversive nature of light is more complex than its association with headache intensification.
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Abstract
There is a growing public awareness that hormones can have a significant impact on most biological systems, including the control of breathing. This review will focus on the actions of two broad classes of hormones on the neuronal control of breathing: sex hormones and stress hormones. The majority of these hormones are steroids; a striking feature is that both groups are derived from cholesterol. Stress hormones also include many peptides which are produced primarily within the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN) and secreted into the brain or into the circulatory system. In this article we will first review and discuss the role of sex hormones in respiratory control throughout life, emphasizing how natural fluctuations in hormones are reflected in ventilatory metrics and how disruption of their endogenous cycle can predispose to respiratory disease. These effects may be mediated directly by sex hormone receptors or indirectly by neurotransmitter systems. Next, we will discuss the origins of hypothalamic stress hormones and their relationship with the respiratory control system. This relationship is 2-fold: (i) via direct anatomical connections to brainstem respiratory control centers, and (ii) via steroid hormones released from the adrenal gland in response to signals from the pituitary gland. Finally, the impact of stress on the development of neural circuits involved in breathing is evaluated in animal models, and the consequences of early stress on respiratory health and disease is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Behan
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
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Why do we yawn? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2010; 34:1267-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2010] [Revised: 03/30/2010] [Accepted: 03/31/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Lee BH, Jung SJ, Kim UJ, Sohn JH, Watanuki S, Yasukouchi A, Morita T. Responses of the hypothalamic paraventricular neurons to light stimulation with different wavelengths in the rat. BIOL RHYTHM RES 2008. [DOI: 10.1080/09291010701536342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Oshima T, Utsunomiya H, Kasuya Y, Sugimoto J, Maruyama K, Dohi S. Identification of independent predictors for intravenous thiopental-induced yawning. J Anesth 2007; 21:131-5. [PMID: 17458639 DOI: 10.1007/s00540-006-0490-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2006] [Accepted: 12/06/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To explore risk factors for the yawning response induced by the intravenous administration of thiopental during the induction of general anesthesia. METHODS We analyzed data from a cohort of 1322 patients who underwent elective surgery under general anesthesia plus intravenous thiopental. The data collected were: (a) the patients' demographic findings (age, sex, height, weight, cigarette smoking, hypertension, and presence of cerebral lesion), and (b) anesthesia-related findings (the kind of preanesthetic medication, i.e., atropine, epidural lidocaine, priming dose of vecuronium, fentanyl, and the dose of intravenous thiopental). An association between an individual variable in the evaluation model and the likelihood of thiopental-induced yawning behavior was characterized by means of the odds ratio. Multiple logistic regression was used to examine the independent contribution of each candidate variable, while controlling for all variables. RESULTS After the intravenous administration of thiopental, 461 patients exhibited a yawning response. The probability of this response was decreased by the prior use of intravenous fentanyl, by female sex, and by premedication with clonidine, but the probability was unaffected by premedication with hydroxyzine, by the prior use of atropine, or by the presence of hypertension or a cerebral lesion. CONCLUSION Thiopental-induced yawning may be suppressed by female sex, prior use of intravenous fentanyl, and premedication with clonidine. These findings may allow insights into the physiologic and pharmacological aspects of yawning in humans, thereby leading to the development methods to prevent thiopental-induced yawning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsutomu Oshima
- Department of Anesthesiology, Gifu University School of Medicine, Gifu 501-1194, Japan
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Guggisberg AG, Mathis J, Herrmann US, Hess CW. The functional relationship between yawning and vigilance. Behav Brain Res 2007; 179:159-66. [PMID: 17337071 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2007.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2006] [Revised: 01/24/2007] [Accepted: 01/30/2007] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although yawning is a ubiquitous and phylogenetically old phenomenon, its origin and purpose remain unclear. The study aimed at testing the widely held hypothesis that yawning is triggered by drowsiness and brings about a reversal or suspension of the process of falling asleep. METHODS Subjects complaining of excessive sleepiness were spontaneously yawning while trying to stay awake in a quiet and darkened room. Changes in their electroencephalogram (EEG) and heart rate variability (HRV) associated with yawning were compared to changes associated with isolated voluntary body movements. Special care was taken to remove eye blink- and movement-artefacts from the recorded signals. RESULTS Yawns were preceded and followed by a significantly greater delta activity in EEG than movements (p< or =0.008). After yawning, alpha rhythms were attenuated, decelerated, and shifted towards central brain regions (p< or =0.01), whereas after movements, they were attenuated and accelerated (p<0.02). A significant transient increase of HRV occurred after the onset of yawning and movements, which was followed by a significant slow decrease peaking 17s after onset (p<0.0001). No difference in HRV changes was found between yawns and movements. CONCLUSIONS Yawning occurred during periods with increased drowsiness and sleep pressure, but was not followed by a measurable increase of the arousal level of the brain. It was neither triggered nor followed by a specific autonomic activation. Our results therefore confirm that yawns occur due to sleepiness, but do not provide evidence for an arousing effect of yawning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian G Guggisberg
- Center of Sleep Medicine, Department of Neurology, Inselspital, University of Berne, CH-3010 Bern, Switzerland.
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Szentirmai E, Kapás L, Krueger JM. Ghrelin microinjection into forebrain sites induces wakefulness and feeding in rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2006; 292:R575-85. [PMID: 16917015 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00448.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Ghrelin, a gut-brain peptide, is best known for its role in the stimulation of feeding and growth hormone release. In the brain, orexin, neuropeptide Y (NPY), and ghrelin are parts of a food intake regulatory circuit. Orexin and NPY are also implicated in maintaining wakefulness. Previous experiments in our laboratory revealed that intracerebroventricular injections of ghrelin induce wakefulness in rats. To further elucidate the possible role of ghrelin in the regulation of arousal, we studied the effects of microinjections of ghrelin into hypothalamic sites, which are implicated in the regulation of feeding and sleep, such as the lateral hypothalamus (LH), medial preoptic area (MPA), and paraventricular nucleus (PVN) on sleep in rats. Sleep responses, motor activity, and food intake after central administration of 0.04, 0.2, or 1 mug (12, 60, or 300 pmol) ghrelin were recorded. Microinjections of ghrelin into the LH had strong wakefulness-promoting effects lasting for 2 h. Wakefulness was also stimulated by ghrelin injection into the MPA and PVN; the effects were confined to the first hour after the injection. Ghrelin's non-rapid-eye-movement sleep-suppressive effect was accompanied by attenuation in the electroencephalographic (EEG) slow-wave activity and changes in the EEG power spectrum. Food consumption was significantly stimulated after microinjections of ghrelin into each hypothalamic site. Together, these results are consistent with the hypothesis that forebrain ghrelinergic mechanisms play a role in the regulation of vigilance, possibly through activating the components of the food intake- and arousal-promoting network formed by orexin and NPY.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Szentirmai
- Department of Veterinary and Comparative Anatomy, Pharmacology and Physiology, Neuroscience Program, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, WA 99164-6520, USA
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Seki Y, Nakatani Y, Kita I, Sato-Suzuki I, Oguri M, Arita H. Light induces cortical activation and yawning in rats. Behav Brain Res 2003; 140:65-73. [PMID: 12644279 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-4328(02)00269-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
We examined the effects of light stimulation on cortical activation and yawning response in anesthetized, spontaneously breathing rats. Cortical activation was assessed by means of an electrocorticogram (ECoG) and yawning response was evaluated by monitoring an intercostal electromyogram as an index of inspiratory activity and a digastric electromyogram as an indicator of mouth opening. Light stimulation elicited an arousal shift in the ECoG to faster rhythms. This arousal response was followed by a single large inspiration with mouth opening, i.e. a yawning response. Higher light intensity significantly reduced the onset latency of the arousal/yawning response. Pretreatment with pyrilamine, an H1-histamine receptor antagonist, injected into the lateral ventricle blocked both the cortical activation and the yawning response induced by light stimulation, suggesting a role of brain histaminergic neurotransmission in modulating the light-induced arousal/yawning responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshinari Seki
- Department of Physiology, Toho University School of Medicine, 5-21-16, Omori-nishi, Ota-ku, Tokyo 143-8540, Japan
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