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König C, Honecker B, Wilson IW, Weedall GD, Hall N, Roeder T, Metwally NG, Bruchhaus I. Taxon-Specific Proteins of the Pathogenic Entamoeba Species E. histolytica and E. nuttalli. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:641472. [PMID: 33816346 PMCID: PMC8017271 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.641472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The human protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica can live in the human intestine for months or years without generating any symptoms in the host. For unknown reasons, amoebae can suddenly destroy the intestinal mucosa and become invasive. This can lead to amoebic colitis or extraintestinal amoebiasis whereby the amoebae spread to other organs via the blood vessels, most commonly the liver where abscesses develop. Entamoeba nuttalli is the closest genetic relative of E. histolytica and is found in wild macaques. Another close relative is E. dispar, which asyptomatically infects the human intestine. Although all three species are closely related, only E. histolytica and E. nuttalli are able to penetrate their host’s intestinal epithelium. Lineage-specific genes and gene families may hold the key to understanding differences in virulence among species. Here we discuss those genes found in E. histolytica that have relatives in only one or neither of its sister species, with particular focus on the peptidase, AIG, Ariel, and BspA families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constantin König
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Barbara Honecker
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ian W Wilson
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary & Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Gareth D Weedall
- School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Neil Hall
- Earlham Institute, Norwich, United Kingdom.,School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Roeder
- Zoology, Department of Molecular Physiology, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany.,Airway Research Center North (ARCN), German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Kiel, Germany
| | | | - Iris Bruchhaus
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany.,Department of Biology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
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2
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Shrinking of repeating unit length in leucine-rich repeats from double-stranded DNA viruses. Arch Virol 2020; 166:43-64. [PMID: 33052487 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-020-04820-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) are present in over 563,000 proteins from viruses to eukaryotes. LRRs repeat in tandem and have been classified into fifteen classes in which the repeat unit lengths range from 20 to 29 residues. Most LRR proteins are involved in protein-protein or ligand interactions. The amount of genome sequence data from viruses is increasing rapidly, and although viral LRR proteins have been identified, a comprehensive sequence analysis has not yet been done, and their structures, functions, and evolution are still unknown. In the present study, we characterized viral LRRs by sequence analysis and identified over 600 LRR proteins from 89 virus species. Most of these proteins were from double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses, including nucleocytoplasmic large dsDNA viruses (NCLDVs). We found that the repeating unit lengths of 11 types are one to five residues shorter than those of the seven known corresponding LRR classes. The repeating units of six types are 19 residues long and are thus the shortest among all LRRs. In addition, two of the LRR types are unique and have not been observed in bacteria, archae or eukaryotes. Conserved strongly hydrophobic residues such as Leu, Val or Ile in the consensus sequences are replaced by Cys with high frequency. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that horizontal gene transfer of some viral LRR genes had occurred between the virus and its host. We suggest that the shortening might contribute to the survival strategy of viruses. The present findings provide a new perspective on the origin and evolution of LRRs.
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Handrich MR, Garg SG, Sommerville EW, Hirt RP, Gould SB. Characterization of the BspA and Pmp protein family of trichomonads. Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:406. [PMID: 31426868 PMCID: PMC6701047 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3660-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Trichomonas vaginalis is a human-infecting trichomonad and as such the best studied and the only for which the full genome sequence is available considering its parasitic lifestyle, T. vaginalis encodes an unusually high number of proteins. Many gene families are massively expanded and some genes are speculated to have been acquired from prokaryotic sources. Among the latter are two gene families that harbour domains which share similarity with proteins of Bacteroidales/Spirochaetales and Chlamydiales: the BspA and the Pmp proteins, respectively. Results We sequenced the transcriptomes of five trichomonad species and screened for the presence of BspA and Pmp domain-containing proteins and characterized individual candidate proteins from both families in T. vaginalis. Here, we demonstrate that (i) BspA and Pmp domain-containing proteins are universal to trichomonads, but specifically expanded in T. vaginalis; (ii) in line with a concurrent expansion of the endocytic machinery, there is a high number of BspA and Pmp proteins which carry C-terminal endocytic motifs; and (iii) both families traffic through the ER and have the ability to increase adhesion performance in a non-virulent T. vaginalis strain and Tetratrichomonas gallinarum by a so far unknown mechanism. Conclusions Our results initiate the functional characterization of these two broadly distributed protein families and help to better understand the origin and evolution of BspA and Pmp domains in trichomonads. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-019-3660-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria R Handrich
- Institute for Molecular Evolution, Heinrich-Heine-University, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Sriram G Garg
- Institute for Molecular Evolution, Heinrich-Heine-University, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Ewen W Sommerville
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Robert P Hirt
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Sven B Gould
- Institute for Molecular Evolution, Heinrich-Heine-University, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany.
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Horizontal Gene Transfer as an Indispensable Driver for Evolution of Neocallimastigomycota into a Distinct Gut-Dwelling Fungal Lineage. Appl Environ Microbiol 2019; 85:AEM.00988-19. [PMID: 31126947 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00988-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 05/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Survival and growth of the anaerobic gut fungi (AGF; Neocallimastigomycota) in the herbivorous gut necessitate the possession of multiple abilities absent in other fungal lineages. We hypothesized that horizontal gene transfer (HGT) was instrumental in forging the evolution of AGF into a phylogenetically distinct gut-dwelling fungal lineage. The patterns of HGT were evaluated in the transcriptomes of 27 AGF strains, 22 of which were isolated and sequenced in this study, and 4 AGF genomes broadly covering the breadth of AGF diversity. We identified 277 distinct incidents of HGT in AGF transcriptomes, with subsequent gene duplication resulting in an HGT frequency of 2 to 3.5% in AGF genomes. The majority of HGT events were AGF specific (91.7%) and wide (70.8%), indicating their occurrence at early stages of AGF evolution. The acquired genes allowed AGF to expand their substrate utilization range, provided new venues for electron disposal, augmented their biosynthetic capabilities, and facilitated their adaptation to anaerobiosis. The majority of donors were anaerobic fermentative bacteria prevalent in the herbivorous gut. This study strongly indicates that HGT indispensably forged the evolution of AGF as a distinct fungal phylum and provides a unique example of the role of HGT in shaping the evolution of a high-rank taxonomic eukaryotic lineage.IMPORTANCE The anaerobic gut fungi (AGF) represent a distinct basal phylum lineage (Neocallimastigomycota) commonly encountered in the rumen and alimentary tracts of herbivores. Survival and growth of anaerobic gut fungi in these anaerobic, eutrophic, and prokaryote-dominated habitats necessitates the acquisition of several traits absent in other fungal lineages. We assess here the role of horizontal gene transfer as a relatively fast mechanism for trait acquisition by the Neocallimastigomycota postsequestration in the herbivorous gut. Analysis of 27 transcriptomes that represent the broad diversity of Neocallimastigomycota identified 277 distinct HGT events, with subsequent gene duplication resulting in an HGT frequency of 2 to 3.5% in AGF genomes. These HGT events have allowed AGF to survive in the herbivorous gut by expanding their substrate utilization range, augmenting their biosynthetic pathway, providing new routes for electron disposal by expanding fermentative capacities, and facilitating their adaptation to anaerobiosis. HGT in the AGF is also shown to be mainly a cross-kingdom affair, with the majority of donors belonging to the bacteria. This study represents a unique example of the role of HGT in shaping the evolution of a high-rank taxonomic eukaryotic lineage.
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Wilson IW, Weedall GD, Lorenzi H, Howcroft T, Hon CC, Deloger M, Guillén N, Paterson S, Clark CG, Hall N. Genetic Diversity and Gene Family Expansions in Members of the Genus Entamoeba. Genome Biol Evol 2019; 11:688-705. [PMID: 30668670 PMCID: PMC6414313 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evz009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Amoebiasis is the third-most common cause of mortality worldwide from a parasitic disease. Although the primary etiological agent of amoebiasis is the obligate human parasite Entamoeba histolytica, other members of the genus Entamoeba can infect humans and may be pathogenic. Here, we present the first annotated reference genome for Entamoeba moshkovskii, a species that has been associated with human infections, and compare the genomes of E. moshkovskii, E. histolytica, the human commensal Entamoeba dispar, and the nonhuman pathogen Entamoeba invadens. Gene clustering and phylogenetic analyses show differences in expansion and contraction of families of proteins associated with host or bacterial interactions. They intimate the importance to parasitic Entamoeba species of surface-bound proteins involved in adhesion to extracellular membranes, such as the Gal/GalNAc lectin and members of the BspA and Ariel1 families. Furthermore, E. dispar is the only one of the four species to lack a functional copy of the key virulence factor cysteine protease CP-A5, whereas the gene's presence in E. moshkovskii is consistent with the species' potentially pathogenic nature. Entamoeba moshkovskii was found to be more diverse than E. histolytica across all sequence classes. The former is ∼200 times more diverse than latter, with the four E. moshkovskii strains tested having a most recent common ancestor nearly 500 times more ancient than the tested E. histolytica strains. A four-haplotype test indicates that these E. moshkovskii strains are not the same species and should be regarded as a species complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian W Wilson
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Gareth D Weedall
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, United Kingdom.,School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, United Kingdom
| | | | - Timothy Howcroft
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Chung-Chau Hon
- Unité Biologie Cellulaire du Parasitisme, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Marc Deloger
- Unité Biologie Cellulaire du Parasitisme, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Nancy Guillén
- Unité Biologie Cellulaire du Parasitisme, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Steve Paterson
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - C Graham Clark
- London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London, United Kingdom
| | - Neil Hall
- Earlham Institute, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom.,School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ United Kingdom
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6
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Guillén N. The interaction betweenEntamoeba histolyticaand enterobacteria shed light on an ancient antibacterial response. Cell Microbiol 2019; 21:e13039. [DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Revised: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nancy Guillén
- Institut Pasteur Paris France
- INSBCentre National de la Recherche Scientifique, CNRS‐ERL9195 Paris France
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7
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Varet H, Shaulov Y, Sismeiro O, Trebicz-Geffen M, Legendre R, Coppée JY, Ankri S, Guillen N. Enteric bacteria boost defences against oxidative stress in Entamoeba histolytica. Sci Rep 2018; 8:9042. [PMID: 29899530 PMCID: PMC5998147 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-27086-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 05/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress is one of the strongest toxic factors in nature: it can harm or even kill cells. Cellular means of subverting the toxicity of oxidative stress are important for the success of infectious diseases. Many types of bacterium inhabit the intestine, where they can encounter pathogens. During oxidative stress, we analyzed the interplay between an intestinal parasite (the pathogenic amoeba Entamoeba histolytica - the agent of amoebiasis) and enteric bacteria (microbiome residents, pathogens and probiotics). We found that live enteric bacteria protected E. histolytica against oxidative stress. By high-throughput RNA sequencing, two amoebic regulatory modes were observed with enteric bacteria but not with probiotics. The first controls essential elements of homeostasis, and the second the levels of factors required for amoeba survival. Characteristic genes of both modes have been acquired by the amoebic genome through lateral transfer from the bacterial kingdom (e.g. glycolytic enzymes and leucine-rich proteins). Members of the leucine-rich are homologous to proteins from anti-bacterial innate immune such as Toll-like receptors. The factors identified here suggest that despite its old age in evolutionary terms, the protozoan E. histolytica displays key characteristics of higher eukaryotes' innate immune systems indicating that components of innate immunity existed in the common ancestor of plants and animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Varet
- Institut Pasteur, Plate-forme Transcriptome et Epigenome, Biomics, Centre d'Innovation et Recherche Technologique (Citech), Paris, France
- Institut Pasteur, Hub Bioinformatique et Biostatistique, Centre de Bioinformatique, Biostatistique et Biologie Intégrative (C3BI, USR 3756 IP CNRS), Paris, France
| | - Yana Shaulov
- Technion Institute, Department of Molecular Microbiology, Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Haifa, Israel
| | - Odile Sismeiro
- Institut Pasteur, Plate-forme Transcriptome et Epigenome, Biomics, Centre d'Innovation et Recherche Technologique (Citech), Paris, France
| | - Meirav Trebicz-Geffen
- Technion Institute, Department of Molecular Microbiology, Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Haifa, Israel
| | - Rachel Legendre
- Institut Pasteur, Plate-forme Transcriptome et Epigenome, Biomics, Centre d'Innovation et Recherche Technologique (Citech), Paris, France
- Institut Pasteur, Hub Bioinformatique et Biostatistique, Centre de Bioinformatique, Biostatistique et Biologie Intégrative (C3BI, USR 3756 IP CNRS), Paris, France
| | - Jean-Yves Coppée
- Institut Pasteur, Plate-forme Transcriptome et Epigenome, Biomics, Centre d'Innovation et Recherche Technologique (Citech), Paris, France
| | - Serge Ankri
- Technion Institute, Department of Molecular Microbiology, Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Haifa, Israel.
| | - Nancy Guillen
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, CNRS-ERL9195, Paris, France.
- Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.
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Barratt J, Gough R, Stark D, Ellis J. Bulky Trichomonad Genomes: Encoding a Swiss Army Knife. Trends Parasitol 2016; 32:783-797. [PMID: 27312283 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2016.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2016] [Revised: 05/19/2016] [Accepted: 05/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The trichomonads are a remarkably successful lineage of ancient, predominantly parasitic protozoa. Recent molecular analyses have revealed extensive duplication of certain genetic loci in trichomonads. Consequently, their genomes are exceptionally large compared to other parasitic protozoa. Retention of these large gene expansions across different trichomonad families raises the question: do these duplications afford an advantage? Many duplicated genes are linked to the parasitic lifestyle and some are regulated differently to their paralogues, suggesting they have acquired new functions. It is proposed that these large genomes encode a Swiss army knife of sorts, packed with a multitude of tools for use in many different circumstances. This may have bestowed trichomonads with the extraordinary versatility that has undoubtedly contributed to their success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Barratt
- I3 Institute, University of Technology Sydney, Broadway, NSW, Australia; School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Broadway, NSW, Australia.
| | - Rory Gough
- I3 Institute, University of Technology Sydney, Broadway, NSW, Australia; School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Broadway, NSW, Australia
| | - Damien Stark
- Division of Microbiology, Sydpath, St Vincent's Hospital, Darlinghurst, NSW, Australia
| | - John Ellis
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Broadway, NSW, Australia
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Silvestre A, Plaze A, Berthon P, Thibeaux R, Guillen N, Labruyère E. In Entamoeba histolytica, a BspA family protein is required for chemotaxis toward tumour necrosis factor. MICROBIAL CELL (GRAZ, AUSTRIA) 2015; 2:235-246. [PMID: 28357299 PMCID: PMC5349171 DOI: 10.15698/mic2015.07.214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2015] [Accepted: 06/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Entamoeba histolytica cell migration is essential for the development of human amoebiasis (an infectious disease characterized by tissue invasion and destruction). The tissue inflammation associated with tumour necrosis factor (TNF) secretion by host cells is a well-documented feature of amoebiasis. Tumour necrosis factor is a chemoattractant for E. histolytica, and the parasite may have a TNF receptor at its cell surface. METHODS confocal microscopy, RNA Sequencing, bioinformatics, RNA antisense techniques and histological analysis of human colon explants were used to characterize the interplay between TNF and E. histolytica. RESULTS an antibody against human TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1) stained the E. histolytica trophozoite surface and (on immunoblots) binds to a 150-kDa protein. Proteome screening with the TNFR1 sequence revealed a BspA family protein in E. histolytica that carries a TNFR signature domain and six leucine-rich repeats (named here as "cell surface protein", CSP, in view of its cellular location). Cell surface protein shares structural homologies with Toll-Like receptors, colocalizes with TNF and is internalized in TNF-containing vesicles. Reduction of cellular CSP levels abolished chemotaxis toward TNF and blocked parasite invasion of human colon. CONCLUSIONS there is a clear link between TNF chemotaxis, CSP and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Silvestre
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Biologie Cellulaire du Parasitisme, F-75015 Paris, France
- INSERM U786, F-75015 Paris, France
- INRA, UMR1282 Infectiologie et Santé Publique, F-37380 Nouzilly, France
- Université de Tours, UMR1282 Infectiologie et Santé Publique, F-37000 Tours, France
| | - Aurélie Plaze
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Biologie Cellulaire du Parasitisme, F-75015 Paris, France
- INSERM U786, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - Patricia Berthon
- INRA, UMR1282 Infectiologie et Santé Publique, F-37380 Nouzilly, France
- Université de Tours, UMR1282 Infectiologie et Santé Publique, F-37000 Tours, France
| | - Roman Thibeaux
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Biologie Cellulaire du Parasitisme, F-75015 Paris, France
- INSERM U786, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - Nancy Guillen
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Biologie Cellulaire du Parasitisme, F-75015 Paris, France
- INSERM U786, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - Elisabeth Labruyère
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Biologie Cellulaire du Parasitisme, F-75015 Paris, France
- INSERM U786, F-75015 Paris, France
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Comparative transcriptomic and proteomic analyses of Trichomonas vaginalis following adherence to fibronectin. Infect Immun 2012; 80:3900-11. [PMID: 22927047 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00611-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The morphological transformation of Trichomonas vaginalis from an ellipsoid form in batch culture to an adherent amoeboid form results from the contact of parasites with vaginal epithelial cells and with immobilized fibronectin (FN), a basement membrane component. This suggests host signaling of the parasite. We applied integrated transcriptomic and proteomic approaches to investigate the molecular responses of T. vaginalis upon binding to FN. A transcriptome analysis was performed by using large-scale expressed-sequence-tag (EST) sequencing. A total of 20,704 ESTs generated from batch culture (trophozoite-EST) versus FN-amoeboid trichomonad (FN-EST) cDNA libraries were analyzed. The FN-EST library revealed decreased amounts of transcripts that were of lower abundance in the trophozoite-EST library. There was a shift by FN-bound organisms to the expression of transcripts encoding essential proteins, possibly indicating the expression of genes for adaptation to the morphological changes needed for the FN-adhesive processes. In addition, we identified 43 differentially expressed proteins in the proteomes of FN-bound and unbound trichomonads. Among these proteins, cysteine peptidase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (an FN-binding protein), and stress-related proteins were upregulated in the FN-adherent cells. Stress-related genes and proteins were highly expressed in both the transcriptome and proteome of FN-bound organisms, implying that these genes and proteins may play critical roles in the response to adherence. This is the first report of a comparative proteomic and transcriptomic analysis after the binding of T. vaginalis to FN. This approach may lead to the discovery of novel virulence genes and affirm the role of genes involved in disease pathogenesis. This knowledge will permit a greater understanding of the complex host-parasite interplay.
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Ali IKM, Haque R, Siddique A, Kabir M, Sherman NE, Gray SA, Cangelosi GA, Petri WA. Proteomic analysis of the cyst stage of Entamoeba histolytica. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2012; 6:e1643. [PMID: 22590659 PMCID: PMC3348168 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2011] [Accepted: 03/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The category B agent of bioterrorism, Entamoeba histolytica has a two-stage life cycle: an infective cyst stage, and an invasive trophozoite stage. Due to our inability to effectively induce encystation in vitro, our knowledge about the cyst form remains limited. This also hampers our ability to develop cyst-specific diagnostic tools. Aims Three main aims were (i) to identify E. histolytica proteins in cyst samples, (ii) to enrich our knowledge about the cyst stage, and (iii) to identify candidate proteins to develop cyst-specific diagnostic tools. Methods Cysts were purified from the stool of infected individuals using Percoll (gradient) purification. A highly sensitive LC-MS/MS mass spectrometer (Orbitrap) was used to identify cyst proteins. Results A total of 417 non-redundant E. histolytica proteins were identified including 195 proteins that were never detected in trophozoite-derived proteomes or expressed sequence tag (EST) datasets, consistent with cyst specificity. Cyst-wall specific glycoproteins Jacob, Jessie and chitinase were positively identified. Antibodies produced against Jacob identified cysts in fecal specimens and have potential utility as a diagnostic reagent. Several protein kinases, small GTPase signaling molecules, DNA repair proteins, epigenetic regulators, and surface associated proteins were also identified. Proteins we identified are likely to be among the most abundant in excreted cysts, and therefore show promise as diagnostic targets. Major Conclusions The proteome data generated here are a first for naturally-occurring E. histolytica cysts, and they provide important insights into the infectious cyst form. Additionally, numerous unique candidate proteins were identified which will aid the development of new diagnostic tools for identification of E. histolytica cysts. We used tandem mass spectrometry to identify E. histolytica cyst proteins in 5 cyst positive stool samples. We report the identification of 417 non-redundant E. histolytica proteins including 195 proteins that were not identified in existing trophozoite derived proteome or EST datasets, consistent with cyst specificity. Because the cysts were derived directly from patient samples with incomplete purification, a limited number of proteins were identified (N = 417) that probably represent only a partial proteome. Nevertheless, the study succeeded in identifying proteins that are likely to be abundant in the cyst stage of the parasite. Several of these proteins may play roles in E. histolytica stage conversion or cyst function. Proteins identified in this study may be useful markers for diagnostic detection of E. histolytica cysts. Overall, the data generated in this study promises to aid the understanding of the cyst stage of the parasite which is vital for disease transmission and pathogenesis in E. histolytica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibne Karim M. Ali
- Division of Infectious Disease and International Health, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
- * E-mail: (IKMA); (WAP)
| | - Rashidul Haque
- International Center for Diarrhoeal Disease Research Bangladesh, Mohakhali, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Abdullah Siddique
- International Center for Diarrhoeal Disease Research Bangladesh, Mohakhali, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Mamun Kabir
- International Center for Diarrhoeal Disease Research Bangladesh, Mohakhali, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Nicholas E. Sherman
- W. M. Keck Biomedical Mass Spectrometry Core, University of Virginia Health Sciences Center, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Sean A. Gray
- Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Gerard A. Cangelosi
- Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - William A. Petri
- Division of Infectious Disease and International Health, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
- * E-mail: (IKMA); (WAP)
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12
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Hirt RP, de Miguel N, Nakjang S, Dessi D, Liu YC, Diaz N, Rappelli P, Acosta-Serrano A, Fiori PL, Mottram JC. Trichomonas vaginalis pathobiology new insights from the genome sequence. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2012; 77:87-140. [PMID: 22137583 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-391429-3.00006-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The draft genome of the common sexually transmitted pathogen Trichomonas vaginalis encodes one of the largest known proteome with 60,000 candidate proteins. This provides parasitologists and molecular cell biologists alike with exciting, yet challenging, opportunities to unravel the molecular features of the parasite's cellular systems and potentially the molecular basis of its pathobiology. Here, recent investigations addressing selected aspects of the parasite's molecular cell biology are discussed, including surface and secreted virulent factors, membrane trafficking, cell signalling, the degradome, and the potential role of RNA interference in the regulation of gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert P Hirt
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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Penuliar GM, Furukawa A, Nakada-Tsukui K, Husain A, Sato D, Nozaki T. Transcriptional and functional analysis of trifluoromethionine resistance in Entamoeba histolytica. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011; 67:375-86. [PMID: 22110087 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkr484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Drug resistance in parasitic protozoa is an obstacle to successful chemotherapy. Understanding how pathogens respond to drugs is crucial in preventing resistance. Previously, we have shown that in Entamoeba histolytica, methionine γ-lyase (EhMGL) downregulation results in trifluoromethionine resistance. The transcriptional response, however, of this parasite to the drug is not known. In this study, we used microarray analysis to determine whether additional genes are involved. METHODS The expression profiles of 9230 genes in wild-type and trifluoromethionine-resistant strains were compared. Episomal overexpression of EhBspA1 was performed to verify its role in trifluoromethionine resistance. The transcriptomes of a trifluoromethionine-resistant strain cultured with or without trifluoromethionine, an EhMGL gene-silenced strain, a strain with reduced susceptibility to metronidazole and a wild-type strain under cysteine-deprived conditions were compared to determine the specificity of the changes observed in the trifluoromethionine-resistant strain. RESULTS The expression of 35 genes differed at least 3-fold between trifluoromethionine-resistant and wild-type strains. Some of the genes play roles in metabolism, the stress response and gene regulation. EhMGL and EhBspA1 were found to be highly downregulated and upregulated, respectively. Overexpression of EhBspA1 conferred partial resistance to trifluoromethionine. Comparative transcriptome analysis showed that genes modulated in trifluoromethionine-resistant strains were specific. CONCLUSIONS E. histolytica has few known resistance mechanisms against drugs. In this study, we showed that aside from EhMGL downregulation, induction of EhBspA1 plays a role in trifluoromethionine resistance. We also showed a unique set of induced genes that could represent the signature profile of trifluoromethionine resistance in E. histolytica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gil M Penuliar
- Department of Parasitology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Toyama 1-23-1, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashu Sharma
- Department of Oral Biology, School of Dental Medicine, University at Buffalo, 311 Foster Hall, 3435 Main Street, Buffalo, NY 14214-8013, USA, Phone: 716-829-2759; Fax: 716-829-3942
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15
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Soanes DM, Talbot NJ. Comparative genome analysis reveals an absence of leucine-rich repeat pattern-recognition receptor proteins in the kingdom Fungi. PLoS One 2010; 5:e12725. [PMID: 20856863 PMCID: PMC2939053 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2010] [Accepted: 07/29/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In plants and animals innate immunity is the first line of defence against attack by microbial pathogens. Specific molecular features of bacteria and fungi are recognised by pattern recognition receptors that have extracellular domains containing leucine rich repeats. Recognition of microbes by these receptors induces defence responses that protect hosts against potential microbial attack. Methodology/Principal Findings A survey of genome sequences from 101 species, representing a broad cross-section of the eukaryotic phylogenetic tree, reveals an absence of leucine rich repeat-domain containing receptors in the fungal kingdom. Uniquely, however, fungi possess adenylate cyclases that contain distinct leucine rich repeat-domains, which have been demonstrated to act as an alternative means of perceiving the presence of bacteria by at least one fungal species. Interestingly, the morphologically similar osmotrophic oomycetes, which are taxonomically distant members of the stramenopiles, possess pattern recognition receptors with similar domain structures to those found in plants. Conclusions The absence of pattern recognition receptors suggests that fungi may possess novel classes of pattern-recognition receptor, such as the modified adenylate cyclase, or instead rely on secretion of anti-microbial secondary metabolites for protection from microbial attack. The absence of pattern recognition receptors in fungi, coupled with their abundance in oomycetes, suggests this may be a unique characteristic of the fungal kingdom rather than a consequence of the osmotrophic growth form.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darren M. Soanes
- School of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas J. Talbot
- School of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Matsushima N, Miyashita H, Mikami T, Kuroki Y. A nested leucine rich repeat (LRR) domain: the precursor of LRRs is a ten or eleven residue motif. BMC Microbiol 2010; 10:235. [PMID: 20825685 PMCID: PMC2946307 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2180-10-235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2009] [Accepted: 09/09/2010] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Leucine rich repeats (LRRs) are present in over 60,000 proteins that have been identified in viruses, bacteria, archae, and eukaryotes. All known structures of repeated LRRs adopt an arc shape. Most LRRs are 20-30 residues long. All LRRs contain LxxLxLxxNxL, in which "L" is Leu, Ile, Val, or Phe and "N" is Asn, Thr, Ser, or Cys and "x" is any amino acid. Seven classes of LRRs have been identified. However, other LRR classes remains to be characterized. The evolution of LRRs is not well understood. Results Here we describe a novel LRR domain, or nested repeat observed in 134 proteins from 54 bacterial species. This novel LRR domain has 21 residues with the consensus sequence of LxxLxLxxNxLxxLDLxx(N/L/Q/x)xx or LxxLxCxxNxLxxLDLxx(N/L/x)xx. This LRR domain is characterized by a nested periodicity; it consists of alternating 10- and 11- residues units of LxxLxLxxNx(x/-). We call it "IRREKO" LRR, since the Japanese word for "nested" is "IRREKO". The first unit of the "IRREKO" LRR domain is frequently occupied by an "SDS22-like" LRR with the consensus of LxxLxLxxNxLxxLxxLxxLxx or a "Bacterial" LRR with the consensus of LxxLxLxxNxLxxLPxLPxx. In some proteins an "SDS22-like" LRR intervenes between "IRREKO" LRRs. Conclusion Proteins having "IRREKO" LRR domain are almost exclusively found in bacteria. It is suggested that IRREKO@LRR evolved from a common ancestor with "SDS22-like" and "Bacterial" classes and that the ancestor of IRREKO@LRR is 10 or 11 residues of LxxLxLxxNx(x/-). The "IRREKO" LRR is predicted to adopt an arc shape with smaller curvature in which β-strands are formed on both concave and convex surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norio Matsushima
- Sapporo Medical University Center for Medical Education, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8556, Japan.
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17
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de Miguel N, Lustig G, Twu O, Chattopadhyay A, Wohlschlegel JA, Johnson PJ. Proteome analysis of the surface of Trichomonas vaginalis reveals novel proteins and strain-dependent differential expression. Mol Cell Proteomics 2010; 9:1554-66. [PMID: 20467041 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m000022-mcp201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The identification of surface proteins on the plasma membrane of pathogens is of fundamental importance in understanding host-pathogen interactions. Surface proteins of the extracellular parasite Trichomonas are implicated in the initial adherence to mucosal tissue and are likely to play a critical role in the long term survival of this pathogen in the urogenital tract. In this study, we used cell surface biotinylation and multidimensional protein identification technology to identify the surface proteome of six strains of Trichomonas vaginalis with differing adherence capacities to vaginal epithelial cells. A combined total of 411 proteins were identified, and of these, 11 were found to be more abundant in adherent strains relative to less adherent parasites. The mRNA levels of five differentially expressed proteins selected for quantitative RT-PCR analysis mirrored their observed protein levels, confirming their up-regulation in highly adherent strains. As proof of principle and to investigate a possible role in pathogenesis for differentially expressed proteins, gain of function experiments were performed using two novel proteins that were among the most highly expressed surface proteins in adherent strains. Overexpression of either of these proteins, TVAG_244130 or TVAG_166850, in a relatively non-adherent strain increased attachment of transfected parasites to vaginal epithelial cells approximately 2.2-fold. These data support a role in adhesion for these abundant surface proteins. Our analyses demonstrate that comprehensive profiling of the cell surface proteome of different parasite strains is an effective approach to identify potential new adhesion factors as well as other surface molecules that may participate in establishing and maintaining infection by this extracellular pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia de Miguel
- Department of Microbiology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1489, USA
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AdpC is a Prevotella intermedia 17 leucine-rich repeat internalin-like protein. Infect Immun 2010; 78:2385-96. [PMID: 20308299 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00510-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The oral bacterium Prevotella intermedia attaches to and invades gingival epithelial cells, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells. Several genes encoding proteins that mediate both the adhesion and invasion processes are carried on the genome of this bacterium. Here, we characterized one such protein, AdpC, belonging to the leucine-rich repeat (LRR) protein family. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that this protein shares similarity with the Treponema pallidum LRR (LRR(TP)) family of proteins and contains six LRRs. Despite the absence of a signal peptide, this protein is localized on the bacterial outer membrane, indicating that it is transported through an atypical secretion mechanism. The recombinant form of this protein (rAdpC) was shown to bind fibrinogen. In addition, the heterologous host strain Escherichia coli BL21 expressing rAdpC (V2846) invaded fibroblast NIH 3T3 cells at a 40-fold-higher frequency than control E. coli BL21 cells expressing a sham P. intermedia 17 protein. Although similar results were obtained by using human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), only a 3-fold-increased invasion of V2846 into oral epithelial HN4 cells was observed. Thus, AdpC-mediated invasion is cell specific. This work demonstrated that AdpC is an important invasin protein of P. intermedia 17.
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Noël CJ, Diaz N, Sicheritz-Ponten T, Safarikova L, Tachezy J, Tang P, Fiori PL, Hirt RP. Trichomonas vaginalis vast BspA-like gene family: evidence for functional diversity from structural organisation and transcriptomics. BMC Genomics 2010; 11:99. [PMID: 20144183 PMCID: PMC2843621 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-11-99] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2009] [Accepted: 02/08/2010] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Trichomonas vaginalis is the most common non-viral human sexually transmitted pathogen and importantly, contributes to facilitating the spread of HIV. Yet very little is known about its surface and secreted proteins mediating interactions with, and permitting the invasion and colonisation of, the host mucosa. Initial annotations of T. vaginalis genome identified a plethora of candidate extracellular proteins. Results Data mining of the T. vaginalis genome identified 911 BspA-like entries (TvBspA) sharing TpLRR-like leucine-rich repeats, which represent the largest gene family encoding potential extracellular proteins for the pathogen. A broad range of microorganisms encoding BspA-like proteins was identified and these are mainly known to live on mucosal surfaces, among these T. vaginalis is endowed with the largest gene family. Over 190 TvBspA proteins with inferred transmembrane domains were characterised by a considerable structural diversity between their TpLRR and other types of repetitive sequences and two subfamilies possessed distinct classic sorting signal motifs for endocytosis. One TvBspA subfamily also shared a glycine-rich protein domain with proteins from Clostridium difficile pathogenic strains and C. difficile phages. Consistent with the hypothesis that TvBspA protein structural diversity implies diverse roles, we demonstrated for several TvBspA genes differential expression at the transcript level in different growth conditions. Identified variants of repetitive segments between several TvBspA paralogues and orthologues from two clinical isolates were also consistent with TpLRR and other repetitive sequences to be functionally important. For one TvBspA protein cell surface expression and antibody responses by both female and male T. vaginalis infected patients were also demonstrated. Conclusions The biased mucosal habitat for microbial species encoding BspA-like proteins, the characterisation of a vast structural diversity for the TvBspA proteins, differential expression of a subset of TvBspA genes and the cellular localisation and immunological data for one TvBspA; all point to the importance of the TvBspA proteins to various aspects of T. vaginalis pathobiology at the host-pathogen interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christophe J Noël
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4HH, UK
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Analyses of non-leucine-rich repeat (non-LRR) regions intervening between LRRs in proteins. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2009; 1790:1217-37. [PMID: 19580846 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2009.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2008] [Revised: 05/01/2009] [Accepted: 06/26/2009] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Many proteins have LRR (leucine-rich repeat) units interrupted by non-LRRs which we call IR (non-LRR island region). METHODS We identified proteins containing LRR@IRs (LRRs having IR) by using a new method and then analyzed their natures and distributions. RESULTS LRR@IR proteins were found in over two hundred proteins from prokaryotes and from eukaryotes. These are divided into twenty-one different protein families. The IRs occur one to four times in LRR regions and range in length from 5 to 11,265 residues. The IR lengths in Fungi adenylate cyclases (acys) range from 5 to 116 residues; there are 22 LRR repeats. The IRs in Leishmania proteophosphoglycans (ppgs) vary from 105 to 11,265 residues. These results indicate that the IRs evolved rapidly. A group of LRR@IR proteins-LRRC17, chondroadherin-like protein, ppgs, and four Pseudomonas proteins-have a super motif consisting of an LRR block and its adjacent LRR@IR region. This indicates that the entire super motif experienced duplication. The sequence analysis of IRs offers functional similarity in some LRR@IR protein families. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE This study suggests that various IRs and super motifs provide a great variety of structures and functions for LRRs.
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Kajava AV, Anisimova M, Peeters N. Origin and evolution of GALA-LRR, a new member of the CC-LRR subfamily: from plants to bacteria? PLoS One 2008; 3:e1694. [PMID: 18301771 PMCID: PMC2244805 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0001694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2007] [Accepted: 01/24/2008] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The phytopathogenic bacterium Ralstonia solanacearum encodes type III effectors, called GALA proteins, which contain F-box and LRR domains. The GALA LRRs do not perfectly fit any of the previously described LRR subfamilies. By applying protein sequence analysis and structural prediction, we clarify this ambiguous case of LRR classification and assign GALA-LRRs to CC-LRR subfamily. We demonstrate that side-by-side packing of LRRs in the 3D structures may control the limits of repeat variability within the LRR subfamilies during evolution. The LRR packing can be used as a criterion, complementing the repeat sequences, to classify newly identified LRR domains. Our phylogenetic analysis of F-box domains proposes the lateral gene transfer of bacterial GALA proteins from host plants. We also present an evolutionary scenario which can explain the transformation of the original plant LRRs into slightly different bacterial LRRs. The examination of the selective evolutionary pressure acting on GALA proteins suggests that the convex side of their horse-shoe shaped LRR domains is more prone to positive selection than the concave side, and we therefore hypothesize that the convex surface might be the site of protein binding relevant to the adaptor function of the F-box GALA proteins. This conclusion provides a strong background for further functional studies aimed at determining the role of these type III effectors in the virulence of R. solanacearum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey V Kajava
- Centre de Recherches de Biochimie Macromoléculaire, CNRS, University of Montpellier 1 and 2, Montpellier, France.
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Clark CG, Alsmark UCM, Tazreiter M, Saito-Nakano Y, Ali V, Marion S, Weber C, Mukherjee C, Bruchhaus I, Tannich E, Leippe M, Sicheritz-Ponten T, Foster PG, Samuelson J, Noël CJ, Hirt RP, Embley TM, Gilchrist CA, Mann BJ, Singh U, Ackers JP, Bhattacharya S, Bhattacharya A, Lohia A, Guillén N, Duchêne M, Nozaki T, Hall N. Structure and content of the Entamoeba histolytica genome. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2008; 65:51-190. [PMID: 18063096 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-308x(07)65002-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The intestinal parasite Entamoeba histolytica is one of the first protists for which a draft genome sequence has been published. Although the genome is still incomplete, it is unlikely that many genes are missing from the list of those already identified. In this chapter we summarise the features of the genome as they are currently understood and provide previously unpublished analyses of many of the genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- C G Clark
- Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, UK
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Trichomonas vaginalis surface proteins: a view from the genome. Trends Parasitol 2007; 23:540-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2007.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2007] [Revised: 08/20/2007] [Accepted: 08/20/2007] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Davis PH, Zhang Z, Chen M, Zhang X, Chakraborty S, Stanley SL. Identification of a family of BspA like surface proteins of Entamoeba histolytica with novel leucine rich repeats. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2005; 145:111-6. [PMID: 16199101 PMCID: PMC1382194 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2005.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2005] [Revised: 07/26/2005] [Accepted: 08/29/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paul H Davis
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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Richards TA, Hirt RP, Williams BAP, Embley TM. Horizontal gene transfer and the evolution of parasitic protozoa. Protist 2003; 154:17-32. [PMID: 12812367 DOI: 10.1078/143446103764928468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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