Opportunities for marine bioprocess intensification using novel bioreactor design: frequency of barotolerance in microorganisms obtained from surface waters

Development of a simultaneous bioreactor system for characterization of gas production kinetics of methanogenic archaea at high pressure

Cultivation of methanogens under high pressure offers a great opportunity in biotechnological processes, one of which is the improvement of the gas‐liquid transfer of substrate gases into the medium broth. This article describes a newly developed simultaneous bioreactor system consisting of four identical cultivation vessels suitable for investigation of microbial activity at pressures up to 50 bar and temperatures up to 145°C. Initial pressure studies at 10 and 50 bar of the autotrophic and hydrogenotrophic methanogens Methanothermobacter marburgensis, Methanobacterium palustre, and Methanobacterium thermaggregans were performed to evaluate the reproducibility of the system as well as to test the productivity of these strains. The strains were compared with respect to gas conversion (%), methane evolution rate (MER) (mmol L^‐1 h⁻¹), turnover rate (h⁻¹), and maximum conversion rate (k_min) (bar h⁻¹). A pressure drop that can be explained by the reaction stoichiometry showed that all tested strains were active under pressurized conditions. Our study sheds light on the production kinetics of methanogenic strains under high‐pressure conditions. In addition, the simultaneous bioreactor system is a suitable first step screening system for analyzing the substrate uptake and/or production kinetics of gas conversion and/or gas production processes for barophilic or barotolerant microbes.

Bioprocessing data for the production of marine enzymes

This review is a synopsis of different bioprocess engineering approaches adopted for the production of marine enzymes. Three major modes of operation: batch, fed-batch and continuous have been used for production of enzymes (such as protease, chitinase, agarase, peroxidase) mainly from marine bacteria and fungi on a laboratory bioreactor and pilot plant scales. Submerged, immobilized and solid-state processes in batch mode were widely employed. The fed-batch process was also applied in several bioprocesses. Continuous processes with suspended cells as well as with immobilized cells have been used. Investigations in shake flasks were conducted with the prospect of large-scale processing in reactors.

Marine enzymes

Marine enzyme biotechnology can offer novel biocatalysts with properties like high salt tolerance, hyperthermostability, barophilicity, cold adaptivity, and ease in large-scale cultivation. This review deals with the research and development work done on the occurrence, molecular biology, and bioprocessing of marine enzymes during the last decade. Exotic locations have been accessed for the search of novel enzymes. Scientists have isolated proteases and carbohydrases from deep sea hydrothermal vents. Cold active metabolic enzymes from psychrophilic marine microorganisms have received considerable research attention. Marine symbiont microorganisms growing in association with animals and plants were shown to produce enzymes of commercial interest. Microorganisms isolated from sediment and seawater have been the most widely studied, proteases, carbohydrases, and peroxidases being noteworthy. Enzymes from marine animals and plants were primarily studied for their metabolic roles, though proteases and peroxidases have found industrial applications. Novel techniques in molecular biology applied to assess the diversity of chitinases, nitrate, nitrite, ammonia-metabolizing, and pollutant-degrading enzymes are discussed. Genes encoding chitinases, proteases, and carbohydrases from microbial and animal sources have been cloned and characterized. Research on the bioprocessing of marine-derived enzymes, however, has been scanty, focusing mainly on the application of solid-state fermentation to the production of enzymes from microbial sources.

Bioprocess Engineering Data on the Cultivation of Marine Prokaryotes and Fungi

The temperature/pressure dependency of marine prokaryotes and fungi, in terms of their growth behaviour as well as their potential to produce new metabolites or enzymes, is evaluated. Advanced shake-flask cultivations and controlled bioreactor cultivations following the batch-type, fed-batch-type and/or continuous-type procedures are summarized. After a summary of the fermentation data available so far, values on maximal biomass, specific growth rates, and (sub)optimal production yields are presented. The application of mesophilic microbes, especially bioactive metabolites, to intensify bioprocess engineering studies, is the goal. Cold-active enzymes and thermostable enzymes are the targets of experiments with psychrophilic and hyperthermophilic enzymes. A special challenge to bioengineers is also provided by barophilic strains originating from depths of, say, nearly 11000 m, or from hydrothermal vents.

Piezotolerance as a metabolic engineering tool for the biosynthesis of natural products

Thermodynamically, high-pressure (>10's of MPa) has a potentially vastly superior effect on reactions and their rates within metabolic processes than temperature. Thus, it might be expected that changes in the pressure experienced by living organisms would have effects on the products of their metabolism. To examine the potential for modification of metabolic pathways based on thermodynamic principles we have performed simple molecular dynamics simulations, in vacuo and in aquo on the metabolites synthesized by recombinant polyketide synthases (PKS). We were able to determine, in this in silico study, the volume changes associated with each reaction step along the parallel PKS pathways. Results indicate the importance of explicitly including the solvent in the simulations. Furthermore, the addition of solvent and high pressure reveals that high pressure may have a beneficial effect on certain pathways over others. Thus, the future looks bright for pressure driven novel secondary metabolite discoveries, and their sustained and efficient production via metabolic engineering.

Culture of the marine cyanobacterium, Lyngbya majuscula (Oscillatoriaceae), for bioprocess intensified production of cyclic and linear lipopeptides

Cyanobacteria are an ancient and diverse group of photosynthetic microorganisms, which inhabit many different and extreme environments. This indicates a high degree of biological adaptation, which has enabled these organisms to thrive and compete effectively in nature. The filamentous cyanobacterium, Lyngbya majuscula, produces several promising antifungal and cytotoxic agents, including laxaphycin A and B and curacin A. Samples of L. majuscula collected from Moorea Island, Tahiti (French Polynesia) and from the Culture Collection of Algae and Protozoa (CCAP 1446/4) were studied and adapted to large scale laboratory culture (5 l). This constitutes a 100-fold scale-up for the culture of this particular strain of L. majuscula. The effect of culture vessel configurations, growth conditions and media compositions on growth of L. majuscula was examined. Using optimised culture conditions, two strains of L. majuscula are currently being evaluated for their production of secondary metabolites. Results will be compared with those obtained from four environmental extracts. Comparisons were made by thin layer chromatography (TLC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FTICR-MS). It was shown that varying the culture conditions under which L. majuscula was grown had the greatest effect on secondary metabolite production, thus providing potential for future bioprocess intensified production.

Prevention of marine biofouling using natural compounds from marine organisms

All surfaces that are submerged in the sea rapidly become covered by a biofilm. This process, called biofouling, has substantial economic consequences. Paints containing tri-butyl-tin (TBT) and copper compounds are used to protect marine structures by reducing biofouling. However, these compounds have damaging effects on the marine environment, as they are not biodegradable. It has been noted that many seaweeds and invertebrates found in the sea are not covered by a mature biofilm. This is due to the release of compounds into the surrounding seawater that deter the settlement of fouling organisms. In addition, seaweeds and invertebrates have bacteria on their surfaces that produce compounds to deter settling organisms. The production of compounds by bacteria and their living hosts work in concert to protect the hosts' surfaces. All of these compounds can be collected so they may be natural alternatives to TBT and copper compounds. However, the benefits associated with the use of bacteria as sources of these compounds means that bacteria are the organisms of choice for obtaining natural products for antifouling coatings.