Retinopathy in systemic lupus erythematosus: pathogenesis and approach to therapy

Optical coherence tomography angiography measurements in systemic lupus erythematosus: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease affecting various organs. Ocular involvement, particularly retinopathy, is common, emphasizing the significance of early detection. Optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA), a non-invasive imaging technique, reveals microvascular changes, aiding SLE diagnosis and monitoring. This study evaluates OCTA's effectiveness in detecting SLE-related retinal alterations. A systemic search was undertaken across PubMed, Embase, and Scopus databases to identify studies presenting OCTA measurements in SLE patients compared to healthy controls. The meta-analysis, employing either fixed-effects or random-effects models based on heterogeneity levels, was conducted. Additionally, subgroup and sensitivity analyses, meta-regression, and quality assessments were carried out. Thirteen studies of 565 eyes in the SLE group and 560 eyes in the control group were included. The meta-analyses revealed that SLE patients had a significantly lower retinal vessel density in the superficial and deep capillary plexus layers, choriocapillaris flow area, and foveal avascular zone (FAZ) circularity index compared to healthy controls, but that there were no significant differences in the FAZ area and perimeter. These findings highlight how OCTA can provide a noninvasive assessment of SLE effects on the retinal microvasculature, potentially presenting a reliable biomarker for more precise detection of SLE and disease activity monitoring.

[Clinical and immunological characteristics of systemic lupus erythematosus with retinopathy]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the clinical and immunological characteristics of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) with retinopathy.

METHODS

Fifty SLE patients with retinopathy without hypertension and diabetes (retinopathy group) who were hospitalized in the Peking University People's Hospital from January 2009 to July 2022 were screened. Fifty SLE patients without blurred vision during the course of the SLE and without retinopathy in the fundus examinations (non-retinopathy group) matched for sex and age were selected. Their clinical manifestations, laboratory tests and lymphocyte subsets were statistically analyzed.

RESULTS

The most common fundus ocular change of the SLE patients with retinopathy was cotton-wool spots (33/50, 66.0%), followed by intraretinal hemorrhage (31/50, 62.0%). Retinopathy could occur at any stage of SLE duration, with a median of 1 year (20 days to 30 years). The proportion of lupus nephritis (72.0% vs. 46.0%, P=0.008) and serositis (58.0% vs. 28.0%, P=0.002) in the retinopathy group were significantly higher than those in the non-retinopathy group. The proportion of neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus (NPSLE) in the retinopathy group was higher, but there was no significant difference between the two groups. Compared with the non-retinopathy group, the proportion of positive anti-cardiolipin antibody (30.0% vs. 12.0%, P=0.027), the SLEDAI score (median 22.0 vs. 10.5, P < 0.001), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (P < 0.001), C-reactive protein (P=0.019) and twenty-four hours urine total protein level (P=0.026) in the retinopathy group were significantly higher, and the hemoglobin level was significantly lower [(91.64±25.18) g/L vs. (113.96±18.57) g/L, P < 0.001]. The proportion of CD19⁺ B cells in peripheral blood of the patients with SLE retinopathy was significantly increased (P=0.010), the proportion of CD4⁺ T cells was significantly decreased (P=0.025) and the proportion of natural killer (NK) cells was lower (P=0.051) when compared with the non-retinopathy group.

CONCLUSION

Retinopathy in SLE suggests a higher activity of SLE disease with more frequent hematologic and retinal involvement. It is recommended to perform fundus examination as soon as a patient is diagnosed with SLE. SLE patients with retinopathy may have stronger abnormal proliferation of B cells, and aggressive treatment should be applied to prevent other important organs involvement.

Evaluation of Subclinical Retinal Disease in Patients Affected by Systemic Lupus Erythematosus with No Evidence of Ocular Involvement-An Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography Original Study

Lupus retinopathy is the second most common eye involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), associated with significant visual deterioration and well-known negative prognostic factor for survival. Ocular manifestation in SLE, relating the retina, ranges from asymptomatic vascular involvement to vision devastating vascular occlusions. Subclinical microvascular changes are undetectable in slit lamp examination, hence are underdiagnosed. Optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) is a novel, easy to interpret and non-invasive technique that allows retinal vessels visualization. OCTA simplifies clinical approach and measures the severity of decreased perfusion. The aim of the study was to demonstrate the retinal vascularization in a subclinical stage of ocular involvement in a cohort of SLE patients. Thirty-three patients (57 eyes) diagnosed with SLE were enrolled into the study group and 31 healthy individuals (56 eyes) into the control group. Vessel density reduction in parafovea, inferior and nasal quadrants of superficial retinal capillary plexus in a cohort of SLE patients was found. Among study group kidney involvement was associated with further microvasculature reduction. Knowing that retinal involvement may precede other organs impairment, early detection of retinal impairment and use of OCTA as a screening modality, may decrease overall disease morbidity.

Retrobulbar blood flow velocity in systemic lupus erythematosus assessed by color Doppler imaging

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the blood flow in retrobulbar vessels in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) by color Doppler imaging (CDI) and to investigate the associations between immunological markers, retinal abnormalities, disease activity, and vascular parameters.

METHODS

We examined 30 patients with SLE who were aged 32.1 ± 11.6 years with a disease duration of 68.0 ± 55.6 months and 30 participants in a control group. The peak systolic velocity (PSV), end diastolic velocity (EDV), pulsatility index (PI), and resistive index (RI) of the ophthalmic artery (OA), central retinal artery (CRA), and posterior ciliary arteries (PCAs) were determined. Physical and ophthalmic examinations with assessments of immunological markers were performed. All parameters were compared between SLE patients and normal controls while the correlations among parameters were analyzed.

RESULTS

In the SLE group, CDI confirmed blood flow abnormalities in the CRA and PCAs, with significantly lower blood flow velocities and increased RI and PI (p < 0.05). There was a significantly negative correlation between disease duration and EDV in the CRA, PCA, and OA (p = 0.0423, 0.0453, 0.0448). There was also a significant relationship between the SLE Disease Activity Index and the PI of the OA (p = 0.0367). The patients who had received biological agents (Rituximab) had lower EDV in the CRA and PCA (p = 0.0026, 0.028). SLE patients with kidney or CNS involvement had a significant increase in the PI in the OA (p = 0.0287). The PSV and EDV in the CRA were significantly related to creatinine (p = 0.0007 and 0.0418). We also noted a significant decreased EDV in the CRA and an increased RI in the OA among participants positive for anti-dsDNA antibodies (p = 0.0331 and 0.0228).

CONCLUSIONS

Retrobulbar circulatory disturbances were detected in SLE patients by CDI. These findings seem likely to affect smaller vessels like the CRA and PCA. However, the presence of measurable changes in the OA is generally indicative of a coexistent nephropathy or central nervous system (CNS) vasculitis. Creatinine, the disease activity index, being positive for anti-dsDNA, and receiving biological agents were associated with measurable changes on the retrobulbar blood flow.

Evaluation of subclinical retinal microvascular changes in systemic lupus erythematosus patients using optical coherence tomography angiography and its relationship with disease activity

Objective

This study aimed to investigate subclinical retinal microvascular changes with optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and healthy controls (HCs), and to evaluate the relationship between OCTA findings and Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity Index 2000 (SLEDAI-2K).

Materials and Methods

In this study, 47 eyes of SLE and 41 eyes of healthy control (HC) were evaluated. The SLE patients were divided into two subgroups: low disease activity (LDA) (SLEDAI≤5) and high disease activity (HDA) (SLEDAI>6). The results of OCTA were compared between SLE patients and HCs as well as the SLE subgroups. The relationship between OCTA results and SLEDAI-2K was evaluated.

Results

There were no differences in foveal avascular zone (FAZ) areas between the SLE patients and HCs. Central foveal thickness (CFT) was lower in SLE patients ( p = .046). Superficial capillary plexus (SCP) vessel density (VD) in SLE patients was significantly lower only in the foveal area compared to that in HCs ( p = .006). Deep capillary plexus (DCP) VD in SLE patients was significantly lower in all areas except the temporal parafoveal area compared to that in the HCs. There was no statistically significant difference between SLE groups with LDA and HDA in FAZ or any of the other areas, including SCP and DCP. When the correlation between OCTA findings and SLEDAI-2K was examined, both SCP and DCP VD were found to be negatively correlated.

conclusions

It was observed that DCP VDs were affected in SLE patients with LDA, and SCP VDs were also affected in addition to DCP with HDA. This suggests that DCP may be the first capillary plexus to be comprised in SLE. VDs were negatively correlated with disease activity. It was concluded that OCTA can be a useful tool in assessing subclinical retinal microvascular pathology and disease activity in patients with SLE.

Linking common human diseases to their phenotypes; development of a resource for human phenomics

Background

In recent years a large volume of clinical genomics data has become available due to rapid advances in sequencing technologies. Efficient exploitation of this genomics data requires linkage to patient phenotype profiles. Current resources providing disease-phenotype associations are not comprehensive, and they often do not have broad coverage of the disease terminologies, particularly ICD-10, which is still the primary terminology used in clinical settings.

Methods

We developed two approaches to gather disease-phenotype associations. First, we used a text mining method that utilizes semantic relations in phenotype ontologies, and applies statistical methods to extract associations between diseases in ICD-10 and phenotype ontology classes from the literature. Second, we developed a semi-automatic way to collect ICD-10–phenotype associations from existing resources containing known relationships.

Results

We generated four datasets. Two of them are independent datasets linking diseases to their phenotypes based on text mining and semi-automatic strategies. The remaining two datasets are generated from these datasets and cover a subset of ICD-10 classes of common diseases contained in UK Biobank. We extensively validated our text mined and semi-automatically curated datasets by: comparing them against an expert-curated validation dataset containing disease–phenotype associations, measuring their similarity to disease–phenotype associations found in public databases, and assessing how well they could be used to recover gene–disease associations using phenotype similarity.

Conclusion

We find that our text mining method can produce phenotype annotations of diseases that are correct but often too general to have significant information content, or too specific to accurately reflect the typical manifestations of the sporadic disease. On the other hand, the datasets generated from integrating multiple knowledgebases are more complete (i.e., cover more of the required phenotype annotations for a given disease). We make all data freely available at 10.5281/zenodo.4726713.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at (10.1186/s13326-021-00249-x).

Assessment of superficial and deep retinal vessel density in systemic lupus erythematosus patients using optical coherence tomography angiography

PURPOSE

The aim of this study is to evaluate the retinal microvascular density in SLE patients using optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) and to correlate vascular density with the disease activity and damage risk.

METHODS

Twenty eyes of 20 SLE patients were compared with 20 eyes of normal subjects. The retinal capillary plexuses were examined by OCTA. The disease activity and damage risk were evaluated by the SLEDAI-2 K and SLICC/ACR SDI scoring systems.

RESULTS

No difference was found between SLE patients' central foveal thickness (CFT) and foveal avascular zone (FAZ) area and the normal (P > 0.05). SLE patients had slightly lower superficial vessel densities than normal in the upper and lower macular regions (P < 0.05), sparing the middle sectors (P > 0.05). In the deep plexus, vessel density loss was detected in all sectors (P < 0.001). The vessel density in 300-μm-wide region around the FAZ (FD-300) and the acircularity index (AI) were affected in the SLE in comparison to the normal group (P < 0.05). No significant correlation was found between the SLEDAI-2 k and the retinal vessel density in either layer, while the SLICC/SDI had moderate inverse correlation with vessel density in some sectors (P < 0.05). Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis showed that the deep capillary plexus had high sensitivity and specificity for detecting vascular damage in SLE patients.

CONCLUSIONS

OCTA permits noninvasive quantitative assessment of retinal vessel density in SLE, allowing early detection of altered retinal circulation. Vessel density could be included in future assessment of SLE activity and damage scores.

Unique changes in the retinal microvasculature reveal subclinical retinal impairment in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus

PURPOSE

To determine the changes of the microvasculature and microstructure in the inner intra-retinal layers in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients without lupus retinopathy (LR).

METHODS

Thirty-two SLE patients (58 eyes) without LR (NLR), 14 patients (22 eyes) with LR and 50 healthy subjects (50 eyes) were enrolled. Spectral domain optical coherence tomography equipped with Angiovue was used to obtain three-dimensional retinal thickness maps and microvascular images of the superficial and deep retinal capillary plexuses (SRCP/DRCP) around the macula. Quantitative analyses were performed using a custom automated algorithm. Disease activity of patients was assessed using the SLE disease activity index (SLEDAI).

RESULTS

Retinal capillary skeleton density of the SRCP in SLE patients without LR was significantly lower than the controls in almost all regions, which further decreased in the LR group (P < .05). No significant changes were evident in DRCP of the NLR group (P > .05). The inner retina in the LR group was significantly thinner than the controls in most regions, though there were only a few regions that were different between the NLR and the control groups (P < .05). There were significant differences of the SLEDAI scores between the two SLE groups.

CONCLUSION

Significantly lower density in SRCP and regional thinning in inner retina were observed in the SLE patients without clinical fundus changes. OCT equipped with Angiovue might be useful in evaluating the microvascular and microstructural disorders of the inner retinal layers in SLE patients, which may contribute a quantitative approach to the early diagnosis and progression of LR.

Lupus retinopathy: a marker of active systemic lupus erythematosus

Retinopathy in the context of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is associated with severe disease and poorer prognosis. We studied retinopathy in our cohort of Indian lupus patients. Four hundred and thirty-seven patients fulfilling the Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics-American College of Rheumatology-2012 criteria, attending the department of Clinical Immunology were enrolled under this cross-sectional study. A comprehensive clinical (including ophthalmological) examination and immunological profile were performed. Retinopathy was defined if cotton-wool spots, haemorrhages, vasculitis, retinal detachment or optic disc changes as papilledema, optic atrophy were present. Disease activity was assessed using SLE disease activity index (SLEDAI). Mean age of participants was 28.06 ± 9.7 years (93.1% females); median disease duration 12 months (Interquartile range-IQR 6.36). Forty-five (10.3%) had SLE associated retinopathy. Autoimmune haemolytic anaemia [31.1 vs 14.5%, p value 0.004, odd's ratio-OR (95% confidence interval-CI) 2.65 (1.33-5.29)], serositis [33.3 vs 18.9%, p value 0.023, OR (CI) 2.14 (1.11-4.10)], lupus nephritis [62.2 vs 40.8%, p value 0.006, OR (CI) 2.38 (1.26-4.50)], seizures [28.9 vs 12.8%, p value 0.004, OR (CI) 2.77 (1.36-5.65)] and median SLEDAI score (24 vs 12, p < 0.01) were significantly higher in those with retinopathy. On adjusted binary logistic regression, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, lupus nephritis and presence of antibodies to Smith antigen were predictors for retinopathy. Retinopathy is common in SLE, a marker of active disease with frequent renal involvement and should be screened for in all patients with lupus.

Ocular manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus: a clinical review

Although the eye itself is regarded an ‘immune-privileged’ organ, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) can affect every ocular structure, leading, if left untreated, to significant visual loss or even blindness. Since ocular inflammation in SLE can antedate the diagnosis of the systemic disease and cause significant morbidity, prompt diagnosis and treatment of the underlying systemic autoimmune disease is imperative.

Bilateral Cytomegalovirus Retinitis in a Patient with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to report the case of a patient who underwent vitrectomy for bilateral rhegmatogenous retinal detachment caused by cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis while undergoing steroid and immunosuppressant therapy for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).

Case Report

We report on a 29-year-old female who was undergoing steroids and immunosuppressants treatment for SLE at Osaka Medical College Hospital, Takatsuki City, Japan. Examination of the patient due to prolonged and worsening diarrhea revealed positive test results for C7-HRP, and she was diagnosed with CMV colitis. She was subsequently admitted to the hospital and started on intravenous ganciclovir for treatment. Approximately 1.5 months later, her primary complaint was deterioration of the upper visual field in her left eye, and she was then referred to the Department of Ophthalmology. Numerous granular exudative spots were found around the lower retinal area of her left eye with retinal breaks that had developed in an area of retinal necrosis that resulted in retinal detachment. After time was allowed for the patient's general condition to improve, a vitrectomy was performed on that eye. The patient subsequently developed a similar retinal detachment in her right eye, for which she underwent a vitrectomy. Although the patient required multiple surgeries on both eyes, her retinas currently remain reattached and the inflammation has subsided.

Conclusion

The findings of this study show that strict attention must be paid to SLE patients on immunosuppressive therapy due to the possible association of CMV retinitis.

Role of lupus retinopathy in systemic lupus erythematosus

Background

Lupus retinopathy is one of the most common vision-threatening complications of systemic lupus erythematosus. The presence of lupus retinopathy is an accurate guide to the presence of active systemic disease activity.

Results

A prospective study was conducted looking at 91 established cases of systemic lupus erythematosus to evaluate lupus retinopathy. The patients were divided into two groups according to the presence or absence of lupus retinopathy, and a comparison of clinical and laboratory findings between two groups was done. Among 91 SLE patients, 5 were male and 86 were female; of which, 85 (93.4 %) were outpatients and 6 (6.6 %) were inpatients. Lupus retinopathy was found in 13 eyes of 11 cases out of 91 cases (12.1 %). Among these 13 eyes with lupus retinopathy, 61.5 % had mild type of lupus retinopathy, 15.4 % had moderate type, and 23.1 % had severe lupus retinopathy.

The mean age of the cases at ophthalmological examination with and without retinopathy was 30.4 and 31.9 years, respectively. The mean serum creatinine level was 190.4 μmol/l which was higher than in the patients without retinopathy (96.2 μmol/l). The mean ESR in patients with retinopathy was higher than without retinopathy (34.2 vs. 32). Similarly, the mean platelet count in SLE patients with retinopathy was 154,245/μl and in SLE patients without retinopathy was 135,828/μl.

Conclusions

Retinal lesions in SLE patients are of critical importance, both visually and prognostically.

Bilateral Hypertensive Retinopathy Complicated with Retinal Neovascularization: Panretinal Photocoagulation or Intravitreal Anti-VEGF Treatment?

PURPOSE

To present the case of a patient with bilateral hypertensive retinopathy complicated with retinal neovascularization who received anti-VEGF intravitreal injection in one eye and panretinal photocoagulation (PRP) in the fellow eye.

METHODS

A 33-year-old male patient presented with gradual visual loss in both eyes for the last 5 months. At that time, he was examined by an ophthalmologist and occlusive retinopathy due to malignant systematic hypertension was diagnosed. He was put on antihypertensive treatment but no ophthalmic treatment was undertaken. At presentation, 5 months later, best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) was 0.1 in the right eye (RE) and 0.9 in the left eye (LE). Fundus examination was compatible with hypertensive retinopathy complicated with retinal neovascularization. Fluorescein angiography (FFA) revealed macular ischemia mainly in the RE and large areas of peripheral retinal ischemia and neovascularization with vascular leakage in both eyes. The patient was treated with two anti-VEGF (ranibizumab) injections with 2 months interval in the RE and PRP laser in the LE.

RESULTS

Follow-up examination after 12 months showed mild improvement in BCVA, and FFA documented regression of retinal neovascularization in both eyes.

CONCLUSION

Hypertensive retinopathy can be rarely complicated with retinal neovascularization. Treatment with PRP can be undertaken. In our case, the use of an intravitreal anti-VEGF agent seemed to halt its progression satisfactorily.

Retinal vasculature remodeling in a case of systemic lupus erythematosus vaso-occlusive retinopathy

PURPOSE

To report a case of systemic lupus erythematosus vaso-occlusive retinopathy illustrating vascular remodeling over 4 years of follow-up.

METHODS

Observational case report of one patient.

RESULTS

A 12-year-old previously healthy girl presented with profound vision loss to 20/800 in both eyes. Her medical workup, neuro-imaging, and ophthalmic examination were consistent with coexistent central nervous system systemic lupus erythematosus and vaso-occlusive systemic lupus erythematosus retinopathy. At 15 months after presentation, retinal vasculature remodeling was evident along with severe macular atrophy. By 4 years after presentation, retinal neovascularization developed that was successfully treated with photocoagulation.

CONCLUSION

We describe a case of systemic lupus erythematosus vaso-occlusive retinopathy illustrating vascular remodeling over 4 years of follow-up.

Retinal vasculitis in systemic lupus erythematosus: an indication of active disease

A 26-year-old woman with a recent flare-up of systemic lupus erythematosus presented with peripheral retinal hemorrhages at a routine check-up. She is on a tapering dose of immunosuppressive agents. Her visual acuity was good. Fluorescein angiogram revealed vasculitic changes with capillary non-perfusion areas. A few weeks later, she developed cerebral lupus with advanced lupus nephritis. Immunosuppressive therapy was restarted and panretinal photocoagulation was delivered. Her visual acuity remained stable, despite development of a cataract from prednisolone therapy.

WITHDRAWN: Ultrastructure of the human retina in aging and various pathological states

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A case of systemic lupus erythematosus presenting as malignant hypertension with hypertensive retinopathy

The variability of cardiovascular abnormalities is one of the characteristics of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Among the cardiovascular manifestations, hypertension is reported in 14% to 58.1% of patients in diverse ethnic populations, and remains a clinically important issue due to its close relationship with early mortality in patients with SLE. The development of hypertension in patients with SLE has been associated with advanced lupus-related renal disease and the medications used for the treatment of lupus. Malignant hypertension is a serious complication of hypertension; it rarely occurs in patients with SLE. However, it can occur in patients with other complicated medical conditions such as the antiphospholipid antibody syndrome (APS) or cardiac tamponade. Here, we report the case of a patient with SLE and malignant hypertension with hypertensive retinopathy that initially presented without clinical evidence of APS or hypertensive nephropathy.

Severe vaso-occlusive retinopathy as the primary manifestation in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus

Severe vaso-occlusive retinopathy as the initial manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is rare. We report a 16-year-old female who developed bilateral visual impairment. Fundus examinations showed bilateral "cherry-red spot" appearance, multiple confluent cotton wool spots, and widespread arterial occlusion. Laboratory studies showed leukopenia, antinuclear antibody (+), and anti-double-stranded DNA antibody (+). Malar rashes, oral ulcers, and bilateral knee joint tenderness were noted during physical examination. SLE was diagnosed and pulse therapy started immediately. Best corrected visual acuity of the left eye improved to 6/10 after treatment. However, there was no visual improvement in the right eye. Four months later, bilateral panretinal laser photocoagulation was performed due to retinal neovascularization. However, tractional retinal detachment of the right eye and vitreous hemorrhage of the left eye still occurred. After undergoing cryoretinopexy of the right eye and intravitreous tissue plasminogen activator injection of the left eye, the visual acuity of the patient's right eye remained hand movement only at 10 cm, but that of the left eye returned to 6/10. The ocular and systemic conditions were stable in the follow-up period of more than 2 years. This case demonstrates that in patients with severe vaso-occlusive retinopathy, a generalized immunological disorder, like SLE, should be suspected.

Looking into the eyes of patients with antiphospholipid syndrome

Diagnosis of antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) should be considered in all patients with recurrent systemic or ocular thrombosis in the absence of known risk factors. Because of the frequent ocular involvement in APS patients (as many as 80%), an ophthalmologic assessment should become a routine part of the clinical work-up of all patients in whom APS is highly suspected. The presence of isolated ocular thrombosis with persistently increased titers of antiphospholipid antibodies should be considered as definite APS. Ocular involvement in APS is frequently associated with other manifestations of the central nervous system (CNS), such as transient ischemic attack or cerebral vascular events. Diagnostic tools are needed to better establish a diagnosis of retinal vascular thrombosis. The treatment of isolated ocular APS should be based on the same principles as in all patients with systemic APS. Anticoagulation is aimed to prevent recurrent ocular or cerebral thromboses.

Changes of central retinal artery blood flow and endothelial function in patients with coronary artery disease

PURPOSE

In patients with coronary artery disease (CAD), endothelial function is usually impaired, but the parameters of central retinal artery (CRA) blood flow have not yet been investigated. We designed the study to test the parameters of CRA blood flow and brachial artery flow-mediated dilation (FMD), accompanied by an aim of establishing whether a link may exist between the parameters of CRA blood flow and endothelial function.

METHODS

Twenty-five subjects were diagnosed as CAD by coronary angiography, and 30 control subjects had normal coronary artery. CRA blood flow and brachial artery FMD were measured noninvasively using high-resolution ultrasound.

RESULTS

In patients with CAD, peak systolic velocity (PSV), end diastolic velocity (EDV), and time velocity integral (TVI) of CRA blood flow were significantly lower (8.75 +/- 2.09 vs. 10.15 +/- 2.16 cm/s, 2.55 +/- 0.73 vs. 3.81 +/- 0.90 cm/s, 5.01 +/- 1.32 vs. 6.27 +/- 1.28 cm/s, respectively, p = 0.019, p < 0.01, p < 0.01), conversely, pulsatility index (PI) and resistance index (RI) were significantly higher (1.28 +/- 0.22 vs. 1.01 +/- 0.20, 0.71 +/- 0.06 vs. 0.62 +/- 0.07, respectively, p < 0.01) when compared with those in normal controls. Meanwhile, brachial artery FMD was decreased in CAD patients (3.91 +/- 1.65 vs. 8.78 +/- 2.92, p < 0.01). After controlling for age, gender, heart rate, and blood pressure, the PSV, EDV, TVI, PI or RI in CRA blood flow were associated with the brachial artery FMD (r = 0.182, 0.372, 0.245, -0.320, or -0.367, respectively, p = 0.205, p = 0.008, p = 0.087, p = 0.023, or p = 0.009).

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicates that CRA blood flow is impaired in patients with CAD, and this may partly relate to endothelial dysfunction. Thus, endothelial function is likely to play an important role in the CRA microcirculation.

Review of severe vaso-occlusive retinopathy in systemic lupus erythematosus and the antiphospholipid syndrome: associations, visual outcomes, complications and treatment

PURPOSE

To discuss the pathogenesis of severe vaso-occlusive retinopathy in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), the association with antiphospholipid antibodies, and its implications for management and prognosis.

METHODS

An illustrative case history of a woman with SLE and severe vaso-occlusive retinopathy in the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies is presented. A literature review of previously reported cases and previously published data on the topic was performed and forms the basis for discussion.

RESULTS

This is a rare form of retinopathy in SLE as distinct from the more common, benign form, being classically a microangiopathy with diffuse capillary non-perfusion and small arterial or arteriolar occlusions in the retina. Poor visual outcomes with visual loss are reported in 80% of cases with neovascularization occurring in 40% of cases. It is associated with antiphospholipid antibodies, typically characterized by microthrombosis and immune complex mediated vasculopathy rather than a true vasculitis. There is a strong association between this severe form of retinopathy and central nervous system manifestations of SLE. Anticoagulation has a role in the secondary prevention of thrombosis in the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies, but the role of aspirin and immunosuppression is unclear in the treatment of this condition. Vigilant ophthalmic follow up and aggressive treatment of neovascularization and vitreous haemorrhage can prevent further visual loss. These points are highlighted in the brief case report presented.

CONCLUSION

Severe vaso-occlusive retinopathy is a rare form of retinopathy in SLE often associated with poor visual prognosis and neovascularization. It may be a manifestation of the antiphospholipid syndrome. Treatment is aimed at preventing further thrombosis and complications arising from neovascularization.