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Moni SS, Abdelwahab SI, Jabeen A, Elmobark ME, Aqaili D, Ghoal G, Oraibi B, Farasani AM, Jerah AA, Alnajai MMA, Mohammad Alowayni AMH. Advancements in Vaccine Adjuvants: The Journey from Alum to Nano Formulations. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:1704. [PMID: 38006036 PMCID: PMC10674458 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11111704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2023] [Revised: 11/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaccination is a groundbreaking approach in preventing and controlling infectious diseases. However, the effectiveness of vaccines can be greatly enhanced by the inclusion of adjuvants, which are substances that potentiate and modulate the immune response. This review is based on extensive searches in reputable databases such as Web of Science, PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, and Google Scholar. The goal of this review is to provide a thorough analysis of the advances in the field of adjuvant research, to trace the evolution, and to understand the effects of the various adjuvants. Historically, alum was the pioneer in the field of adjuvants because it was the first to be approved for use in humans. It served as the foundation for subsequent research and innovation in the field. As science progressed, research shifted to identifying and exploiting the potential of newer adjuvants. One important area of interest is nano formulations. These advanced adjuvants have special properties that can be tailored to enhance the immune response to vaccines. The transition from traditional alum-based adjuvants to nano formulations is indicative of the dynamism and potential of vaccine research. Innovations in adjuvant research, particularly the development of nano formulations, are a promising step toward improving vaccine efficacy and safety. These advances have the potential to redefine the boundaries of vaccination and potentially expand the range of diseases that can be addressed with this approach. There is an optimistic view of the future in which improved vaccine formulations will contribute significantly to improving global health outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sivakumar S. Moni
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia; (A.J.)
| | | | - Aamena Jabeen
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia; (A.J.)
| | - Mohamed Eltaib Elmobark
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia; (A.J.)
| | - Duaa Aqaili
- Physiology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Gassem Ghoal
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Bassem Oraibi
- Medical Research Centre, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia (B.O.)
| | | | - Ahmed Ali Jerah
- College of Applied Medical Sciences, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mahdi Mohammed A. Alnajai
- General Directorate of Health Services and University Hospital, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia;
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Cortés H, Castillo-Ruiz M, Cañon-Jones H, Schlotterbeck T, San Martín R, Padilla L. In Vivo Efficacy of Purified Quillaja Saponin Extracts in Protecting against Piscirickettsia salmonis Infections in Atlantic Salmon ( Salmo salar). Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:2845. [PMID: 37760245 PMCID: PMC10525856 DOI: 10.3390/ani13182845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Piscirickettsiosis, the main infectious disease affecting salmon farming in Chile, still has no efficient control measures. Piscirickettsia salmonis is a facultative intracellular bacterium that can survive and replicate within the host macrophages, evading the immune response. Triterpenic saponins obtained from the Quillaja saponaria tree have been widely studied, and have been shown to be immunomodulatory agents, suitable for feed and vaccine applications for veterinary and human uses. The impact of the oral administration of two extracts of Quillaja saponins on the infection of P. salmonis in Salmo salar and the corresponding gene expressions of immunomarkers were studied under three in vivo models. In the intraperitoneal challenge model, the group fed with Quillaja extracts showed lower mortality (29.1% treated vs. 37.5% control). Similar results were obtained in the cohabitation model trial (36.3% vs. 60.0%). In the commercial pilot trial, the results showed a significant reduction of 71.3% in mortality caused by P. salmonis (0.51% vs. 1.78%) and antibiotic use (reduction of 66.6% compared to untreated control). Also, Quillaja extracts significantly modulated the expression of IFN-II and CD8. These results represent evidence supporting the future use of purified Quillaja extracts as a natural non-pharmacological strategy for the prevention and control of P. salmonis infections in salmon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hernán Cortés
- Desert King Chile, Viña del Mar 2420505, Chile; (T.S.); (L.P.)
| | - Mario Castillo-Ruiz
- Escuela de Química y Farmacia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago 8370134, Chile;
- Departamento de Ciencias Químicas y Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Bernardo O’Higgins, Santiago 8370854, Chile
| | - Hernán Cañon-Jones
- Núcleo de Investigación Aplicada en Ciencias Veterinarias y Agronómicas, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Agronomía, Universidad de Las Américas, Santiago 7500975, Chile
| | | | - Ricardo San Martín
- Sutardja Center for Entrepreneurship and Technology, College of Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA;
| | - Leandro Padilla
- Desert King Chile, Viña del Mar 2420505, Chile; (T.S.); (L.P.)
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Tomaiuolo S, Jansen W, Soares Martins S, Devriendt B, Cox E, Mori M. QuilA® adjuvanted Coxevac® sustains Th1-CD8 +-type immunity and increases protection in Coxiella burnetii-challenged goats. NPJ Vaccines 2023; 8:17. [PMID: 36788233 PMCID: PMC9929268 DOI: 10.1038/s41541-023-00607-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Coxevac® is the EMA-approved veterinary vaccine for the protection of cattle and goats against Q fever, a zoonotic bacterial disease due to Coxiella burnetii. Since Coxevac® reduces bacterial shedding and clinical symptoms but does not prevent infection, novel, ready-to-use vaccine formulations are needed to increase its immunogenicity. Here, a goat vaccination-challenge model was used to evaluate the impact of the commercially available saponin-based QuilA® adjuvant on Coxevac® immunity. Upon challenge, the QuilA®-Coxevac® group showed a stronger immune response reflected in a higher magnitude of total IgG and an increase in circulating and splenic CD8+ T-cells compared to the Coxevac® and challenged-control groups. The QuilA®-Coxevac® group was characterized by a targeted Th1-type response (IFNγ, IP10) associated with increased transcripts of CD8+ and NK cells in spleens and γδ T cells in bronchial lymph nodes. Coxevac® vaccinated animals presented an intermediate expression of Th1-related genes, while the challenged-control group showed an immune response characterized by pro-inflammatory (IL1β, TNFα, IL12), Th2 (IL4 and IL13), Th17 (IL17A) and other immunoregulatory cytokines (IL6, IL10). An intriguing role was observed for γδ T cells, which were of TBX21- and SOX4-types in the QuilA®-Coxevac® and challenged control group, respectively. Overall, the addition of QuilA® resulted in a sustained Th1-type activation associated with an increased vaccine-induced bacterial clearance of 33.3% as compared to Coxevac® only. QuilA® could be proposed as a readily-applied veterinary solution to improve Coxevac® efficacy against C. burnetii infection in field settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Tomaiuolo
- grid.508031.fBacterial Zoonoses Unit, Veterinary Bacteriology, Infectious Diseases in Animals Scientific Directorate, Sciensano, Brussels, Belgium ,National Reference Centre for Coxiella burnetii and Bartonella, Brussels, Belgium ,grid.5342.00000 0001 2069 7798Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Wiebke Jansen
- grid.508031.fBacterial Zoonoses Unit, Veterinary Bacteriology, Infectious Diseases in Animals Scientific Directorate, Sciensano, Brussels, Belgium ,National Reference Centre for Coxiella burnetii and Bartonella, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Susana Soares Martins
- grid.508031.fBacterial Zoonoses Unit, Veterinary Bacteriology, Infectious Diseases in Animals Scientific Directorate, Sciensano, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Bert Devriendt
- grid.5342.00000 0001 2069 7798Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Eric Cox
- grid.5342.00000 0001 2069 7798Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Marcella Mori
- Bacterial Zoonoses Unit, Veterinary Bacteriology, Infectious Diseases in Animals Scientific Directorate, Sciensano, Brussels, Belgium. .,National Reference Centre for Coxiella burnetii and Bartonella, Brussels, Belgium.
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Advances in Infectious Disease Vaccine Adjuvants. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:vaccines10071120. [PMID: 35891284 PMCID: PMC9316175 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10071120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaccines are one of the most significant medical interventions in the fight against infectious diseases. Since their discovery by Edward Jenner in 1796, vaccines have reduced the worldwide transmission to eradication levels of infectious diseases, including smallpox, diphtheria, hepatitis, malaria, and influenza. However, the complexity of developing safe and effective vaccines remains a barrier for combating many more infectious diseases. Immune stimulants (or adjuvants) are an indispensable factor in vaccine development, especially for inactivated and subunit-based vaccines due to their decreased immunogenicity compared to whole pathogen vaccines. Adjuvants are widely diverse in structure; however, their overall function in vaccine constructs is the same: to enhance and/or prolong an immunological response. The potential for adverse effects as a result of adjuvant use, though, must be acknowledged and carefully managed. Understanding the specific mechanisms of adjuvant efficacy and safety is a key prerequisite for adjuvant use in vaccination. Therefore, rigorous pre-clinical and clinical research into adjuvant development is essential. Overall, the incorporation of adjuvants allows for greater opportunities in advancing vaccine development and the importance of immune stimulants drives the emergence of novel and more effective adjuvants. This article highlights recent advances in vaccine adjuvant development and provides detailed data from pre-clinical and clinical studies specific to infectious diseases. Future perspectives into vaccine adjuvant development are also highlighted.
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Inglefield J, Catania J, Harris A, Hickey T, Ma Z, Minang J, Baranji K, Spangler T, Look J, Ruiz C, Lu H, Alleva D, Reece JJ, Lacy MJ. Use of protective antigen of Bacillus anthracis as a model recombinant antigen to evaluate toll-like receptors 2, 3, 4, 7 and 9 agonists in mice using established functional antibody assays, antigen-specific antibody assays and cellular assays. Vaccine 2022; 40:5544-5555. [PMID: 35773119 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists can act as immune stimulants alone or as part of alum or oil formulations. Humoral and cellular immune responses were utilized to assess quantitative and qualitative immune response enhancement by TLR agonists using recombinant protective antigen (rPA) of B. anthracis as a model antigen. To rPA, combined with aluminum hydroxide (Alhydrogel; Al(OH)3) or squalene (AddaVax™), was added one of 7 TLR agonists: TLR2 agonist Pam3CysSK4 (PamS), TLR3 agonist double stranded polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (PolyIC), TLR4 agonists Monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA) or glucopyranosyl lipid A (GLA), TLR7-8 agonists 3M-052 or Resiquimod (Resiq), or TLR9 agonist CPG 7909 (CPG). CD-1 or BALB/c mice received two intraperitoneal or intramuscular immunizations 14 days apart, followed by serum or spleen sampling 14 days later. All TLR agonists except PamS induced high levels of B. anthracis lethal toxin-neutralizing antibodies and immunoglobulin G (IgG) anti-PA. Some responses were >100-fold higher than those without a TLR agonist, and IP delivery (0.5 mL) induced higher TLR-mediated antibody response increases compared to IM delivery (0.05 mL). TLR7-8 and TLR9 agonists induced profound shifts of IgG anti-PA response to IgG2a or IgG2b. Compared to the 14-day immunization schedule, use of a shortened immunization schedule of only 7 days between prime and boost found that TLR9 agonist CPG in a squalene formulation maintained higher interferon-γ-positive cells than TLR4 agonist GLA. Variability in antibody responses was lower in BALB/c mice than CD-1 mice but antibody responses were higher in CD-1 mice. Lower serum 50% effective concentration (EC50) values were found for rPA-agonist formulations and squalene formulations compared to Al(OH)3 formulations. Lower EC50 values also were associated with low frequency detection of linear peptide epitopes. In summary, TLR agonists elicited cellular immune responses and markedly boosted humoral responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon Inglefield
- Emergent BioSolutions Inc., 300 Professional Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20879, USA
| | - Jason Catania
- Emergent BioSolutions Inc., 300 Professional Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20879, USA
| | - Andrea Harris
- Emergent BioSolutions Inc., 300 Professional Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20879, USA
| | - Thomas Hickey
- Emergent BioSolutions Inc., 300 Professional Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20879, USA
| | - Zhidong Ma
- Emergent BioSolutions Inc., 300 Professional Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20879, USA
| | - Jacob Minang
- Emergent BioSolutions Inc., 300 Professional Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20879, USA
| | - Katalin Baranji
- Emergent BioSolutions Inc., 300 Professional Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20879, USA
| | - Tarl Spangler
- Emergent BioSolutions Inc., 300 Professional Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20879, USA
| | - Jee Look
- Emergent BioSolutions Inc., 300 Professional Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20879, USA
| | - Christian Ruiz
- Emergent BioSolutions Inc., 300 Professional Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20879, USA
| | - Hang Lu
- Emergent BioSolutions Inc., 300 Professional Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20879, USA
| | - David Alleva
- Emergent BioSolutions Inc., 300 Professional Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20879, USA
| | - Joshua J Reece
- Emergent BioSolutions Inc., 300 Professional Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20879, USA
| | - Michael J Lacy
- Emergent BioSolutions Inc., 300 Professional Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20879, USA.
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Abstract
Vaccines are essential tools for the prevention and control of infectious diseases in animals. One of the most important steps in vaccine development is the selection of a suitable adjuvant. The focus of this review is the adjuvants used in vaccines for animals. We will discuss current commercial adjuvants and experimental formulations with attention to mineral salts, emulsions, bacterial-derived components, saponins, and several other immunoactive compounds. In addition, we will also examine the mechanisms of action for different adjuvants, examples of adjuvant combinations in one vaccine formulation, and challenges in the research and development of veterinary vaccine adjuvants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulia Burakova
- 1 Department of Anatomy and Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University , Manhattan, Kansas.,2 Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, Kansas State University , Manhattan, Kansas
| | - Rachel Madera
- 1 Department of Anatomy and Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University , Manhattan, Kansas
| | - Scott McVey
- 3 United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Arthropod Borne Animal Disease Research Unit, Manhattan, Kansas
| | - John R Schlup
- 2 Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, Kansas State University , Manhattan, Kansas
| | - Jishu Shi
- 1 Department of Anatomy and Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University , Manhattan, Kansas
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Affiliation(s)
- Daming Zhu
- Laboratory of Malaria Immunology and Vaccinology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, 5640 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
| | - Wenbin Tuo
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
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Safari D, Dekker HAT, Rijkers G, Snippe H. Codelivery of adjuvants at the primary immunization site is essential for evoking a robust immune response to neoglycoconjugates. Vaccine 2011; 29:849-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.10.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2010] [Revised: 10/15/2010] [Accepted: 10/23/2010] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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Song X, Hu S. Adjuvant activities of saponins from traditional Chinese medicinal herbs. Vaccine 2009; 27:4883-90. [PMID: 19559122 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.06.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2008] [Revised: 05/29/2009] [Accepted: 06/07/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
New generation vaccines such as recombinant, antigen purified and DNA vaccines are poorly immunogenic due to the lack of an innate immune stimulus. Therefore, search of new adjuvants for these vaccines has become a topic of interesting. In new adjuvant development, saponins are outstanding candidates. Recently, increased attention has been received on plant-derived saponins in search of new adjuvant candidates from traditional Chinese medicinal herbs such as Panax ginseng, Astragalus species, Panax notoginseng,Cochinchina momordica, Glycyrrhiza uralensis and Achyranthes bidentata. Many of the saponins have been found to have adjuvant effects on purified protein antigens. The chemical structures of the saponins are related to their adjuvant activities, and influence the nature of the immune responses. Saponin adjuvants have been reported to stimulate secretion of a broad range of cytokines, suggesting that saponins may act by triggering innate immunity. As these plant-originated adjuvants may promote different branches of the immune system, they have the potential to be used in design of new vaccines so as to induce a desired immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoming Song
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310029, China
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Innovative vaccine production technologies: The evolution and value of vaccine production technologies. Arch Pharm Res 2009; 32:465-80. [DOI: 10.1007/s12272-009-1400-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2009] [Revised: 03/10/2009] [Accepted: 03/13/2009] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Sun HX, Xie Y, Ye YP. Advances in saponin-based adjuvants. Vaccine 2009; 27:1787-96. [PMID: 19208455 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.01.091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 286] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2008] [Revised: 01/18/2009] [Accepted: 01/19/2009] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Saponins are natural glycosides of steroid or triterpene which exhibited many different biological and pharmacological activities. Notably, saponins can also activate the mammalian immune system, which have led to significant interest in their potential as vaccine adjuvants. The most widely used saponin-based adjuvants are Quil A and its derivatives QS-21, isolated from the bark of Quillaja saponaria Molina, which have been evaluated in numerous clinical trials. Their unique capacity to stimulate both the Th1 immune response and the production of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) against exogenous antigens makes them ideal for use in subunit vaccines and vaccines directed against intracellular pathogens as well as for therapeutic cancer vaccines. However, Quillaja saponins have serious drawbacks such as high toxicity, undesirable haemolytic effect and instability in aqueous phase, which limits their use as adjuvant in vaccination. It has driven much research for saponin-based adjuvant from other kinds of natural products. This review will summarize the current advances concerning adjuvant effects of different kinds of saponins. The structure-activity relationship of saponin adjuvants will also be discussed in the light of recent findings. It is hoped that the information collated here will provide the reader with information regarding the adjuvant potential applications of saponins and stimulate further research into these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Xiang Sun
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemic Etiology & Immunological Prevention of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Kaixuan Road 268, Hangzhou 310029, PR China.
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Heinemann L, Woodfield L, Amer M, Hibma M. Effective Induction of Type 1 Helper IgG2aand Cytotoxic T-Cell Responses in Mice Following Immunization with Human Papillomavirus Type 16 E2 in MF59. Viral Immunol 2008; 21:225-33. [DOI: 10.1089/vim.2007.0101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Lucy Heinemann
- Virus Research Unit, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Lauren Woodfield
- Virus Research Unit, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Mira Amer
- Virus Research Unit, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Merilyn Hibma
- Virus Research Unit, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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Sun H, Yang Z, Ye Y. Structure and biological activity of protopanaxatriol-type saponins from the roots of Panax notoginseng. Int Immunopharmacol 2006; 6:14-25. [PMID: 16332509 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2005.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2004] [Revised: 01/14/2005] [Accepted: 07/06/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The further purification of the total saponins from the roots of Panax notoginseng by using ordinary and reversed-phase silica-gel, as well as Sephadex LH-20 chromatography afford seven adjuvant active protopanaxatriol-type saponins (PTS), ginsenosides-Rh1 (Rh1),-Rh4 (Rh4),-Rg1 (Rg1),-Re (Re), notoginsenosides-R1 (R1),-R2 (R2),-U (U). These saponins were evaluated for their haemolytic activities and adjuvant potentials on the cellular and humoral immune responses of ICR mice against ovalbumin (OVA). The effect of the substitution pattern of these PTS on their biological activities was investigated and structure-activity relationships were established. Among seven PTS, the haemolytic activity of Rh1 was higher than that of other six compounds (p<0.001) The HD50 values of Rh4 and U were significantly bigger than those of R2, Rg1 and Re (p<0.05 or p<0.01). Seven PTS could significantly increase the concanavalin A (Con A)-, lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- and OVA-induced splenocyte proliferation in the OVA-immunized mice (p<0.01 or p<0.001). The OVA-specific IgG, IgG1, IgG2a and IgG2b antibody levels in serum were also significantly enhanced by seven PTS compared with OVA control group (p<0.01 or p<0.001). The structure-activity relationship studies suggested that the number, the length and the position of sugar side chains, and the type of glucosyl group in the structure of PTS could not only affect their haemolytic activities and adjuvant potentials, but have significant effects on the nature of the immune responses. The information about this structure/function relationship might be useful for developing semisynthetic tetracyclic triterpenoid saponin derivatives with immunological adjuvant activity, as well as a reference to the distribution of the functional groups composing the saponin molecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongxiang Sun
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, People's Republic of China.
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Sun HX, Qin F, Ye YP. Relationship between haemolytic and adjuvant activity and structure of protopanaxadiol-type saponins from the roots of Panax notoginseng. Vaccine 2005; 23:5533-42. [PMID: 16115706 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2005] [Accepted: 07/12/2005] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Four protopanaxadiol-type saponins (PDS), ginsenosides-Rb(1), -Rd, notoginsenosides-K, -R(4) isolated from the roots of Panax notoginseng were evaluated for their haemolytic activities and adjuvant potentials on the cellular and humoral immune responses of ICR mice against ovalbumin (OVA). The effect of the substitution pattern of these PDS on their biological activities was investigated and structure-activity relationships were established. Among four PDS, the ranking of the haemolytic activity was K>R(4)>Rb(1)>Rd (P<0.01 or <0.001). Rd, Rb(1), and K could significantly enhance mitogen- and OVA-induced splenocyte proliferation in the OVA-immunized mice (P<0.001), with the order in terms of stimulation index being Rd>Rb(1)>K>R(4). OVA-specific IgG, IgG1, IgG2a and IgG2b antibody levels in the OVA-immunized mice were significantly enhanced by four PDS. Adjuvant potentials of Rd on antibody responses were higher than those of other three PDS. Meanwhile, Rd also significantly enhanced the production of the Th1 and Th2 cytokines in OVA-immunized mice (P<0.05 or <0.01). The structure-activity relationship studies suggested that the length of sugar side chains at position C-20 and the linkage of glucose moiety at position C-3 of protopanaxadiol could affect the haemolytic and adjuvant activities of PDS. The information about this structure/function relationship might be useful for developing semisynthetic tetracyclic triterpenoid saponin derivatives with immunological adjuvant activity, as well as a reference to the distribution of the functional groups composing the saponin molecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Xiang Sun
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310029, China.
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Oda K, Sato Y, Katayama S, Ito A, Ohgitani T. Separation and characterization of adjuvant oligosaccharide oleate ester derived from product mixture of mannitol-oleic acid esterification. Vaccine 2004; 22:2812-21. [PMID: 15246616 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2004.01.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2003] [Revised: 12/16/2003] [Accepted: 01/07/2004] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Nearly 30 years after intense investigations of mannide monooleates for use as vaccine adjuvants, a novel adjuvant-active saccharide oleate ester was isolated and identified from the product mixture synthesized from mannitol and oleic acid. The mixture, which contained many kinds of mannide mono- and dioleates and their derivatives, was fractionated by liquid chromatography (LC), and the fraction with the highest adjuvanticity was obtained. Gel permeation chromatography (GPC) showed that it consisted of one major compound with an average molecular weight (MW) 2850. Infrared (IR) absorption and proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectra suggested it had oligosaccharide moieties and oleate domains. These findings suggested that it was an oligosaccharide oleate ester of the average MW 2850. The molecular ratio of oleate chains per monosaccharide unit was approximately 0.8. The ester induced both IgG1 and IgG2a antibody responses in mice in a dispersed form without base oil. This ester thus appears to be one of the adjuvant-active compounds largely contributing to the excellent adjuvanticity of mannide oleate mixture broadly used as vaccine emulsifier. These results and previous findings suggest that the fundamental adjuvanticity of this 'oligo' saccharide acylate ester was in accord with the hydrophil-lipophil balance (HLB) theory, similarly to other saccharide acylate esters. It is now expected that this compound will be useful as novel vaccine adjuvant which may induce both Th1 and Th2 type immune responses with low or no toxicity, not only as an vaccine emulsifier but in an aqueous suspension form.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Oda
- Kyoto Biken Laboratories, Inc., 24-16 Makishima-cho Uji-shi, 611-0041, Japan.
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16
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de Wit MC, Horzinek MC, Haagmans BL, Schijns VEJC. Host-dependent type 1 cytokine responses driven by inactivated viruses may fail to default in the absence of IL-12 or IFN-α/β. J Gen Virol 2004; 85:795-803. [PMID: 15039522 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.19605-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Replicating viruses generally induce type 1 immune responses, with high interferon (IFN)-γ levels and antibodies of the IgG2a isotype. In the present study we demonstrate the intrinsic ability of non-replicating virions to induce comparable immune responses in the notable absence of any adjuvant. Injection of inactivated pseudorabies virus, an alphaherpesvirus, by various routes into mice resulted in the generation of T helper (Th) 1 type immune response. Co-delivery of inactivated pseudorabies herpesvirus (iPRV) with protein redirected IgG1-dominated tetanus toxoid-specific responses towards an IgG1/IgG2a balanced response. Also inactivated preparations of viruses from the paramyxo- (Newcastle disease virus), rhabdo- (rabies virus), corona- (infectious bronchitis virus) and reovirus (avian reovirus) families led to IgG2a antibody responses; however, the genetic background of the host did result in considerable variation. Because disrupted virions also induced type 1 immune responses, we conclude that structural elements of virions inherently contribute to IFN-γ-dependent isotype switching by inactivated viruses. Strikingly, immunizations in gene-disrupted mice showed that a functional IFN-α/β, IFN-γ or interleukin (IL)-12 pathway was not required for the generation of a polarized Th1 type immune response initiated by inactivated virus particles. These findings have a bearing on the understanding of immune responsiveness to virus structures and the design of vaccines containing virus components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marel C de Wit
- Virology Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Veterinary Faculty, Utrecht University, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Marian C Horzinek
- Virology Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Veterinary Faculty, Utrecht University, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Bart L Haagmans
- Institute of Virology, Erasmus MC Rotterdam, 3015 GE Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Virgil E J C Schijns
- Department of Vaccine Technology and Immunology, Intervet International BV, 5830 AA Boxmeer, The Netherlands
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17
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Velikovsky CA, Goldbaum FA, Cassataro J, Estein S, Bowden RA, Bruno L, Fossati CA, Giambartolomei GH. Brucella lumazine synthase elicits a mixed Th1-Th2 immune response and reduces infection in mice challenged with Brucella abortus 544 independently of the adjuvant formulation used. Infect Immun 2003; 71:5750-5. [PMID: 14500496 PMCID: PMC201088 DOI: 10.1128/iai.71.10.5750-5755.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The immunogenicity and protective efficacy of recombinant lumazine synthase from Brucella spp. (rBLS) administered with different adjuvants was evaluated in mice. Mice were immunized with rBLS in the absence or the presence of aluminum hydroxide gel (BLS-Al), monophosphoryl lipid A (BLS-MPA), or incomplete Freund's adjuvant (BLS-IFA). rBLS per se induced a vigorous immunoglobulin G (IgG) response, with high titers of IgG1 as well as IgG2. All the adjuvants increased this response; the BLS-IFA formulation was the most effective at inducing BLS-specific IgG antibodies. In addition, after in vitro stimulation with rBLS, spleen cells from BLS-IFA-, BLS-Al-, or BLS-MPA-immunized mice proliferated and produced interleukin-2 (IL-2), gamma interferon (IFN-gamma), IL-10, and IL-4, suggesting the induction of a mixed Th1-Th2 response. Immunization with rBLS protected mice against challenge with B. abortus 544. The levels of protection in the spleen were similar for all adjuvants, but only BLS-Al and BLS-IFA were effective in the liver. Our results indicate that BLS might be a useful candidate for the development of subunit vaccines against brucellosis, since it elicits antigen-specific cellular responses, with production of IFN-gamma and protection, independently of the adjuvant formulation used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A Velikovsky
- Instituto de Estudios de la Inmunidad Humoral (IDEHU), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956 4to Piso, 1113 Buenos Aires, Argentina
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18
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Katayama S, Oda K, Ohgitani T. Influence of antigenic forms and adjuvants on protection against a lethal infection of Aujeszky's disease virus. Vaccine 2000; 19:54-8. [PMID: 10924786 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(00)00150-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The influence of antigenic forms and adjuvant types on protection against a lethal infection of Aujeszky's disease virus (ADV) in mice was investigated. Antiviral IgG2a antibody response against particulate (inactivated ADV) and soluble antigen (ADV solubilized with deoxychorate-Na) in approximate order of extent was ISA70>QS-21>positively charged liposome>negatively charged liposome>weak negatively charged liposome>ISA25>lablabside F saponin>aluminum phosphate gel>non adjuvant. Particulate antigen induced higher IgG2a antibody production than soluble antigen. Particulate antigen combined with ISA70, ISA25 or positively charged liposome gave 100, 50 and 40% protection to mice, respectively. In contrast, soluble antigen plus ISA70 conferred 30% protection on mice. Immunogens using the other adjuvants gave </=20% protection to mice. These results indicate that a combination of particulate antigen and an appropriate adjuvant effectively induces the production of antiviral IgG2a antibody and provides protection against a lethal ADV infection in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Katayama
- Division of Veterinary Microbiology, Kyoto Biken Laboratories, 24-16 Makishima-cho, Kyoto 611-0041, Uji, Japan
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Mikloska Z, Rückholdt M, Ghadiminejad I, Dunckley H, Denis M, Cunningham AL. Monophosphoryl lipid A and QS21 increase CD8 T lymphocyte cytotoxicity to herpes simplex virus-2 infected cell proteins 4 and 27 through IFN-gamma and IL-12 production. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2000; 164:5167-76. [PMID: 10799875 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.164.10.5167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We have shown previously that IFN-gamma pretreatment of human epidermal cells (ECs) cultured in vitro partially reverses down-regulation of surface MHC class I by HSV infection, allowing recognition by CD8 CTLs, and that HSV immediate early (IE)/early (E) proteins are the predominant targets for CD8 CTLs. In this study of 25 subjects, CD8 CTLs recognized the HSV-2 IE infected cell protein 27 (ICP27) (expressed in autologous IFN-gamma-pretreated, Vaccinia virus recombinant-infected ECs) in all subjects studied, ICP4 in 89%, and ICP0 in 11%. The main hierarchy of recognition was ICP27 > ICP4. ICP27 was the dominant target in 89% of subjects but showed great individual variability in the degree of cytotoxicity. CD8 cytotoxicity specific for HSV-2 IE proteins was enhanced by 48-67% when CD8 CTLs were coincubated with the combination of monophosphoryl lipid A and QS21 adjuvants at the time of Ag presentation. These adjuvants also significantly enhanced IL-12 and IFN-gamma production from nonadherent mononuclear cells stimulated by HSV-2-infected ECs. Addition of IL-12 and IFN-gamma at the time of initial Ag presentation enhanced CD8 cytotoxicity to levels comparable with those stimulated by the adjuvants. Addition of neutralizing Abs to IL-12 or IFN-gamma inhibited CD8 T cell cytotoxicity up to 95% when a combination of the Abs were added at the time of initial Ag presentation. Therefore, the mechanism for the enhancement of CD8 T cell cytotoxicity by adjuvants in this system appears to be via increased levels of IL-12 and IFN-gamma.
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MESH Headings
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/pharmacology
- Cells, Cultured
- Cytotoxicity Tests, Immunologic
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic/drug effects
- Dose-Response Relationship, Immunologic
- Drug Combinations
- Epidermal Cells
- Epidermis/immunology
- Epidermis/metabolism
- Epidermis/virology
- Herpesvirus 2, Human/genetics
- Herpesvirus 2, Human/immunology
- Humans
- Immediate-Early Proteins/biosynthesis
- Immediate-Early Proteins/genetics
- Immediate-Early Proteins/immunology
- Immune Sera/pharmacology
- Immunosuppressive Agents/pharmacology
- Interferon-gamma/antagonists & inhibitors
- Interferon-gamma/biosynthesis
- Interferon-gamma/genetics
- Interferon-gamma/immunology
- Interleukin-12/antagonists & inhibitors
- Interleukin-12/biosynthesis
- Interleukin-12/genetics
- Interleukin-12/immunology
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/drug effects
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/immunology
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/metabolism
- Lipid A/analogs & derivatives
- Lipid A/pharmacology
- Recombinant Proteins/immunology
- Saponins/pharmacology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/drug effects
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/virology
- Ubiquitin-Protein Ligases
- Vaccinia virus/genetics
- Vaccinia virus/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Mikloska
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, Westmead Hospital and University of Sydney, Westmead, Australia.
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Oda K, Matsuda H, Murakami T, Katayama S, Ohgitani T, Yoshikawa M. Adjuvant and haemolytic activities of 47 saponins derived from medicinal and food plants. Biol Chem 2000; 381:67-74. [PMID: 10722052 DOI: 10.1515/bc.2000.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Adjuvant and haemolytic activities of 47 saponins purified from medicinal and food plants were examined. The compounds showed various levels of both adjuvant and haemolytic activities. Soyasaponins and lablabosides showed strong adjuvant activity but little haemolytic activity. Jujubosides showed strong adjuvant and haemolytic activities. Escins showed weaker adjuvant activity than the adjuvant-control, but strong haemolytic activity. Comparison of the functional groups of each saponin revealed that the acyl residue in saponin, the aldehyde group at carbon 4 in aglycone, and branched sugar chains attached to aglycone, were not essential for adjuvant activity. Furthermore, saponins with an acyl residue or oxide-ring moiety tended to show haemolytic activity. These results suggest that the adjuvant activity of saponins does not relate with haemolytic activity. It is considered that not only the functional groups themselves, but the overall conformation harmoniously consisting of such functional groups, affects adjuvant activity of saponins.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Oda
- Division of Veterinary Microbiology, Kyoto Biken Laboratories, Japan
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