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Cho D, Li R, Jeong H, Li S, Wu C, Tzavelis A, Yoo S, Kwak SS, Huang Y, Rogers JA. Bitter Flavored, Soft Composites for Wearables Designed to Reduce Risks of Choking in Infants. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2021; 33:e2103857. [PMID: 34369002 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202103857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Wireless, skin-integrated devices for continuous, clinical-quality monitoring of vital signs have the potential to greatly improve the care of patients in neonatal and pediatric intensive-care units. These same technologies can also be used in the home, across a broad spectrum of ages, from beginning to end of life. Although miniaturized forms of such devices minimize patient burden and improve compliance, they represent life-threatening choking hazards for infants. A materials strategy is presented here to address this concern. Specifically, composite materials are introduced as soft encapsulating layers and gentle adhesives that release chemical compounds designed to elicit an intense bitter taste when placed in the mouth. Reflexive reactions to this sensation strongly reduce the potential for ingestion, as a safety feature. The materials systems described involve a non-toxic bitterant (denatonium benzoate) as a dopant in an elastomeric (poly(dimethylsiloxane)) or hydrogel matrix. Experimental and computational studies of these composite materials and the kinetics of release of the bitterant define the key properties. Incorporation into various wireless skin-integrated sensors demonstrates their utility in functional systems. This simple strategy offers valuable protective capabilities, with broad practical relevance to the welfare of children monitored with wearable devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donghwi Cho
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Rui Li
- State Key Laboratory of Structural Analysis for Industrial Equipment, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, 116024, China
- International Research Center for Computational Mechanics, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, 116024, China
| | - Hyoyoung Jeong
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Shupeng Li
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Changsheng Wu
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Andreas Tzavelis
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Seonggwang Yoo
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Sung Soo Kwak
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- School of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Yonggang Huang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - John A Rogers
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
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Potentially serious consequences for the use of Bitrex as a deterrent for the intentional inhalation of computer duster sprays. Forensic Toxicol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-020-00559-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Lin C, Civantos AM, Arnold M, Stevens EM, Cowart BJ, Colquitt LR, Mansfield C, Kennedy DW, Brooks SG, Workman AD, Blasetti MT, Kohanski MA, Doghramji L, Douglas JE, Maina IW, Palmer JN, Adappa ND, Reed DR, Cohen NA. Divergent bitter and sweet taste perception intensity in chronic rhinosinusitis patients. Int Forum Allergy Rhinol 2020; 11:857-865. [PMID: 32846055 DOI: 10.1002/alr.22686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bitter and sweet taste receptors are present in the human upper airway, where they have roles in innate immunity. Previous studies have shown that 1 of the 25 bitter receptors, TAS2R38, responds to specific bacterial signaling molecules and evokes 1 type of a defense response in the upper airway, whereas ligands of sweet receptors suppress other types of defense responses. METHODS We examined whether other bitter taste receptors might also be involved in innate immunity by using sensory responses to bitter compounds that are not ligands of TAS2R38 (quinine and denatonium benzoate) to assess the sensitivity of other bitter receptors in chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) patients. CRS patients with (n = 426) and without (n = 226) nasal polyps and controls (n = 356) rated the intensity of quinine, denatonium benzoate, phenylthiocarbamide (PTC; a ligand for TAS2R38), sucrose, and salt. RESULTS CRS patients rated the bitter compounds denatonium benzoate and quinine as less intense and sucrose as more intense than did controls (false discovery rate [FDR] <0.05) and CRS patients and controls did not differ in their ratings of salt (FDR >0.05). PTC bitter taste intensity differed between patient and control groups but were less marked than those previously reported. Though differences were statistically significant, overall effect sizes were small. CONCLUSION CRS patients report bitter stimuli as less intense but sweet stimuli as more intense than do control subjects. We speculate that taste responses may reflect the competence of sinonasal innate immunity mediated by taste receptor function, and thus a taste test may have potential for clinical utility in CRS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cailu Lin
- Monell Chemical Senses Center, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Alyssa M Civantos
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Division of Rhinology, Perelman School of Medicine at The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Monique Arnold
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Division of Rhinology, Perelman School of Medicine at The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Elizabeth M Stevens
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Division of Rhinology, Perelman School of Medicine at The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | | | | | | | - David W Kennedy
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Division of Rhinology, Perelman School of Medicine at The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Steven G Brooks
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Division of Rhinology, Perelman School of Medicine at The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Alan D Workman
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Division of Rhinology, Perelman School of Medicine at The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Mariel T Blasetti
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Division of Rhinology, Perelman School of Medicine at The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Michael A Kohanski
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Division of Rhinology, Perelman School of Medicine at The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Laurel Doghramji
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Division of Rhinology, Perelman School of Medicine at The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Jennifer E Douglas
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Division of Rhinology, Perelman School of Medicine at The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Ivy W Maina
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Division of Rhinology, Perelman School of Medicine at The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - James N Palmer
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Division of Rhinology, Perelman School of Medicine at The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Nithin D Adappa
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Division of Rhinology, Perelman School of Medicine at The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | | | - Noam A Cohen
- Monell Chemical Senses Center, Philadelphia, PA.,Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Division of Rhinology, Perelman School of Medicine at The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA.,Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs (VA) Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA
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Deloose E, Janssen P, Corsetti M, Biesiekierski J, Masuy I, Rotondo A, Van Oudenhove L, Depoortere I, Tack J. Intragastric infusion of denatonium benzoate attenuates interdigestive gastric motility and hunger scores in healthy female volunteers. Am J Clin Nutr 2017; 105:580-588. [PMID: 28148502 DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.116.138297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Denatonium benzoate (DB) has been shown to influence ongoing ingestive behavior and gut peptide secretion.Objective: We studied how the intragastric administration of DB affects interdigestive motility, motilin and ghrelin plasma concentrations, hunger and satiety ratings, and food intake in healthy volunteers.Design: Lingual bitter taste sensitivity was tested with the use of 6 concentrations of DB in 65 subjects. A placebo or 1 μmol DB/kg was given intragastrically to assess its effect on fasting gastrointestinal motility and hunger ratings, motilin and ghrelin plasma concentrations, satiety, and caloric intake.Results: Women (n = 39) were more sensitive toward a lingual bitter stimulus (P = 0.005) than men (n = 26). In women (n = 10), intragastric DB switched the origin of phase III contractions from the stomach to the duodenum (P = 0.001) and decreased hunger ratings (P = 0.04). These effects were not observed in men (n = 10). In women (n = 12), motilin (P = 0.04) plasma concentrations decreased after intragastric DB administration, whereas total and octanoylated ghrelin were not affected. The intragastric administration of DB decreased hunger (P = 0.008) and increased satiety ratings (P = 0.01) after a meal (500 kcal) in 13 women without affecting gastric emptying in 6 women. Caloric intake tended to decrease after DB administration compared with the placebo (mean ± SEM: 720 ± 58 compared with 796 ± 45 kcal; P = 0.08) in 20 women.Conclusions: Intragastric DB administration decreases both antral motility and hunger ratings during the fasting state, possibly because of a decrease in motilin release. Moreover, DB decreases hunger and increases satiety ratings after a meal and shows potential for decreasing caloric intake. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02759926.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eveline Deloose
- Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; and
| | - Pieter Janssen
- Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; and
| | - Maura Corsetti
- Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; and.,National Institute for Health Research, Nottingham Digestive Diseases Biomedical Research Unit, Nottingham University Hospitals National Health Service Trust, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Jessica Biesiekierski
- Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; and
| | - Imke Masuy
- Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; and
| | - Alessandra Rotondo
- Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; and
| | - Lukas Van Oudenhove
- Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; and
| | - Inge Depoortere
- Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; and
| | - Jan Tack
- Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; and
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Jobson MA, Hogan SL, Maxwell CS, Hu Y, Hladik GA, Falk RJ, Beuhler MC, Pendergraft WF. Clinical Features of Reported Ethylene Glycol Exposures in the United States. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0143044. [PMID: 26566024 PMCID: PMC4643878 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0143044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Accepted: 10/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ethylene glycol is highly toxic and represents an important cause of poisonings worldwide. Toxicity can result in central nervous system dysfunction, cardiovascular compromise, elevated anion gap metabolic acidosis and acute kidney injury. Many states have passed laws requiring addition of the bittering agent, denatonium benzoate, to ethylene glycol solutions to reduce severity of exposures. The objectives of this study were to identify differences between unintentional and intentional exposures and to evaluate the utility of denatonium benzoate as a deterrent. METHODS AND FINDINGS Using the National Poison Data System, we performed a retrospective analysis of reported cases of ethylene glycol exposures from January 2006 to December 2013. Outcome classification was summed for intentionality and used as a basis for comparison of effect groups. There were 45,097 cases of ethylene glycol exposures resulting in 154 deaths. Individuals more likely to experience major effects or death were older, male, and presented with more severe symptoms requiring higher levels of care. Latitude and season did not correlate with increased exposures; however, there were more exposures in rural areas. Denatonium benzoate use appeared to have no effect on exposure severity or number. CONCLUSION Deaths due to ethylene glycol exposure were uncommon; however, there were major clinical effects and more exposures in rural areas. Addition of denatonium benzoate was not associated with a reduction in exposures. Alternative means to deter ingestion are needed. These findings suggest the need to consider replacing ethylene glycol with alternative and less toxic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan A. Jobson
- University of North Carolina (UNC) School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- UNC Kidney Center, Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Susan L. Hogan
- University of North Carolina (UNC) School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- UNC Kidney Center, Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Colin S. Maxwell
- Department of Biology, Duke Center for Systems Biology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Yichun Hu
- University of North Carolina (UNC) School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- UNC Kidney Center, Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Gerald A. Hladik
- University of North Carolina (UNC) School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- UNC Kidney Center, Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Ronald J. Falk
- University of North Carolina (UNC) School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- UNC Kidney Center, Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Michael C. Beuhler
- Carolinas Poison Center, Carolinas Medical Center, Charlotte, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - William F. Pendergraft
- University of North Carolina (UNC) School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- UNC Kidney Center, Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Shaw CD, Carter KC. Drug delivery: lessons to be learnt from Leishmania studies. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2014; 9:1531-44. [DOI: 10.2217/nnm.14.66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Leishmaniasis is a disease caused by infection with the protozoan parasite Leishmania, which is responsible for three main types of disease: cutaneous leishmaniasis, visceral leishmaniasis and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis based to the site of infection for the particular species. This presents a major challenge to successful drug treatment, as a drug must not only reach antileishmanial concentrations in infected macrophages, the parasites' host cell, but also reach infected cells in locations specific to the type of disease. In this paper we discuss how studies using Leishmania have contributed to our knowledge on how drug delivery systems can be used to improve drug efficacy and delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- CD Shaw
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences University of Strathclyde, 161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G4 0RE, Scotland, UK
| | - KC Carter
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences University of Strathclyde, 161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G4 0RE, Scotland, UK
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A comparison of the aversiveness of denatonium saccharide and quinine in humans. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.3758/bf03334741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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White NC, Litovitz T, Benson BE, Horowitz BZ, Marr-Lyon L, White MK. The impact of bittering agents on pediatric ingestions of antifreeze. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2009; 48:913-21. [PMID: 19571333 DOI: 10.1177/0009922809339522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Legislation requiring bittering of antifreeze enables assessment of the impact on frequency, volume, and severity of pediatric antifreeze ingestions. METHODS US poison control data for antifreeze ingestions in children younger than 5 years were analyzed comparing 232 ingestions occurring in states after enactment of bittering requirements with 6218 cases occurring in states (or at times) where bittering was not required. RESULTS The frequency of pediatric antifreeze ingestions was unchanged after implementation of bittering in Oregon and California. The medical outcome distribution, median volume ingested, and observed clinical effects were no different in bittered compared with nonbittered groups. Likewise, the rates of hospital admission, critical care treatment, and use of alkalinization, hemodialysis, or intubation showed no differences with bittering. CONCLUSION Despite the appealing logic of limiting the ingested volume and thereby the severity of poisonings by adding aversive agents, and despite promising results in volunteer studies, bittering agents do not decrease the frequency or severity of pediatric antifreeze poisonings. The addition of bittering agents to household products cannot be justified based on actual poisoning data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole C White
- University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
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MacLean S, D’abbs PH. Will modifying inhalants reduce volatile substance misuse? A review. DRUGS-EDUCATION PREVENTION AND POLICY 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/09687630600762202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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White NC, Litovitz T, White MK, Watson WA, Benson BE, Horowitz BZ, Marr-Lyon L. The impact of bittering agents on suicidal ingestions of antifreeze. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2008; 46:507-14. [PMID: 18584362 DOI: 10.1080/15563650802119700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Legislation requiring the addition of bittering agents to antifreeze enables assessment of the impact on frequency, volume and severity of suicidal antifreeze ingestions. METHODS U.S. poison control data were analyzed comparing 130 suicidal antifreeze ingestions occurring in two states after enactment of bittering requirements with 3,493 cases occurring in states (or at times) where bittering was not required. RESULTS The frequency of suicidal antifreeze ingestions was unchanged after implementation of bittering. The volume implicated, medical outcome distribution, and use of antidotes, hemodialysis, intubation, or critical care, showed no significant difference between bittered and non-bittered groups. Bittering was not a significant contributor (positively or negatively) in predicting lethal or life-threatening medical outcomes. CONCLUSION The addition of bittering agents to antifreeze for the purpose of limiting the frequency or severity of suicidal ingestions could not be justified using U.S. poison control data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole C White
- University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
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Final Report of the Safety Assessment of Alcohol Denat., Including SD Alcohol 3-A, SD Alcohol 30, SD Alcohol 39, SD Alcohol 39-B, SD Alcohol 39-C, SD Alcohol 40, SD Alcohol 40-B, and SD Alcohol 40-C, and the Denaturants, Quassin, Brucine Sulfate/Brucine, and Denatonium Benzoate1. Int J Toxicol 2008; 27 Suppl 1:1-43. [DOI: 10.1080/10915810802032388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Alcohol Denat. is the generic term used by the cosmetics industry to describe denatured alcohol. Alcohol Denat. and various specially denatured (SD) alcohols are used as cosmetic ingredients in a wide variety of products. Many denaturants have been previously considered, on an individual basis, as cosmetic ingredients by the Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) Expert Panel, whereas others, including Brucine and Brucine Sulfate, Denatonium Benzoate, and Quassin, have not previously been evaluated. Quassin is a bitter alkaloid obtained from the wood of Quassia amara. Quassin has been used as an insect antifeedant and insecticide and several studies demonstrate its effectiveness. At oral doses up to 1000 mg/kg using rats, Quassin was not toxic in acute and short-term tests, but some reversible piloerection, decrease in motor activity, and a partial loss of righting reflex were found in mice at 500 mg/kg. At 1000 mg/kg given intraperitoneally (i.p.), all mice died within 24 h of receiving treatment. In a cytotoxicity test with brine shrimp, 1 mg/ml of Quassin did not possess any cytotoxic or antiplasmodial activity. Quassin administered to rat Leydig cells in vitro at concentrations of 5–25 ng/ml inhibited both the basal and luteinizing hormone (LH)-stimulated testosterone secretion in a dose-related fashion. Quassin at doses up to 2.0 g/kg in drinking water using rats produced no significant effect on the body weights, but the mean weights of the testes, seminal vesicles, and epididymides were significantly reduced, and the weights of the anterior pituitary glands were significantly increased. The sperm counts and levels of LH, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and testosterone were significantly lower in groups treated with Quassin. Brucine is a derivative of 2-hydroxystrychnine. Swiss-Webster mice given Brucine base, 30 ml/kg, had an acute oral LD50 of 150 mg/kg, with central nervous system depression followed by convulsions and seizures in some cases. In those animals that died, respiratory arrest was the cause. The acute i.p. LD50 for 15 ml/kg of Brucine base was 62.0 mg/kg, with central nervous system depression prior to the onset of convulsions, just as with oral Brucine. The acute intravenous (i.v.) LD50 was 12.0 mg/kg. Brucine was nonmutagenic in an Ames assay at levels up to 6666 ìg/plate, with and without metabolic activation. In a repeat-insult patch test, for a hair care product containing 47% SD Alcohol 40 (95%), it was reported that Brucine Sulfate may be considered a nonprimary irritant and a nonprimary sensitizer. Three different sunscreen products (35% SD Alcohol 40-B, 72.4% SD Alcohol 40, and 74.5% SD Alcohol 40) did not show any signs of photoallergy in human subjects. Also, these three formulas did not exhibit any evidence of phototoxicity in humans. Denatonium Benzoate is a bitter substance detectable at a concentration of 10 ppb, discernibly bitter at 50 ppb, and unpleasantly bitter at 10 ppm. The distribution of topically applied lidocaine, a topical anesthetic chemically related to Denatonium Benzoate demonstrated that virtually no lidocaine appears in the plasma, suggesting that the larger Denatonium Benzoate molecule also would have little or no systemic exposure. Denatonium Benzoate (0.1%) did not show adverse effects in 10 rats in an acute inhalation toxicity test and 0.005% to 0.05% was nonirritating to ocular mucosa in 6 albino rabbits. The acute oral LD50 for the male rats was 640 mg/kg and for females, 584 mg/kg. The LD50 for the male rabbits was 508 mg/kg and for the female rabbits, 640 mg/kg. In two chronic toxicity studies, Denatonium Benzoate was administered (by gavage) at 1.6, 8, and 16 mg/kg/day, one using cynomologus monkeys and the other rats, resulted in no compound-related toxicity. The toxicity of SD Alcohols has also been tested, with implications for the particular denaturant used. An irritation test of 55.65% SD Alcohol 40-B denatured with Denatonium Benzoate using rabbits produced minimal effects. A spray formula containing 12% SD Alcohol 40-B was found to be nonirritating when evaluated for vaginal mucosal irritation in New Zealand white rabbits. Cosmetic formulations containing SD Alcohol 40-B (denatured with Denatonium Benzoate) were not sensitizers in repeated insult patch tests. A gel formula containing 29% SD Alcohol 40-B and a spray liquid containing 12% SD Alcohol 40-B did not induce photoallergy, dermal sensitization, or phototoxic response in human subjects. Although the absorption of ethanol (aka Alcohol for purposes of cosmetic ingredient labeling) occurs through skin, ethanol does not appear to affect the integrity of the skin barrier nor reach a very high systemic concentration following dermal exposure. Ethanol may be found in the bloodstream as a result of inhalation exposure and ingestion. Topically applied, ethanol can act as a penetration enhancer. Most of the systemic toxicity of ethanol appears to be associated with chronic abuse of alcohol. Although ethanol is denatured to make it unfit for consumption, there have been reports of intentional and unintentional consumption of products containing denatured alcohol. Ethanol is a reproductive and developmental toxicant. Ethanol is genotoxic in some test systems and it has been proposed that the genotoxic effects of ethanol are mediated via its metabolite, acetaldehyde. A brief summary is provided of the effects of chronic ingestion of alcohol including intoxication, liver damage, brain damage, and possible carcinogenicity. The CIR Expert Panel recognizes that certain ingredients in this group are reportedly used in a given product category, but the concentration of use is not available. Because dermal application or inhalation of cosmetic products containing these ingredients will not produce significant systemic exposure to ethanol, the CIR Expert Panel concluded that safety of the ingredients should be predicated on the safety of the denaturants used. The Panel considered that the adverse effects knownto be associated with Alcohol ingestion included in this safety assessment do not suggest a concern for Alcohol Denat. or SD Alcohols because of the presence of the denaturants, which are added for the express purpose of making the Alcohol unpotable. The CIR Expert Panel has previously conducted safety assessments of t-Butyl Alcohol, Diethyl Phthalate, Methyl Alcohol, Salicylic Acid, Sodium Salicylate, and Methyl Salicylate, in which each was affirmed safe or safe with qualifications. Given their use as denaturants are at low concentrations of use in Alcohol, the CIR Expert Panel determined that Alcohol Denat. denatured with t- Butyl Alcohol, Diethyl Phthalate, Methyl Alcohol, Salicylic Acid, Sodium Salicylate, and Methyl Salicylate is safe as used in cosmetic formulations with no qualifications. Likewise, because they are denatured with either t-Butyl Alcohol, Diethyl Phthalate, or Methyl Alcohol, SD Alcohols 3-A, 30, 39-B, 39-C, and 40-C all are considered safe as used. The Panel considered the available data for Denatonium Benzoate and SD Alcohol 40-B to be sufficient to support the safety of these ingredients in cosmetics. Denatonium Benzoate is sufficiently bitter that it is an effective denaturant at only 0.0006%. The Panel recognized that data on dermal penetration of Denatonium Benzoate were not available, but considered that the available data on lidocaine, a smaller structurally related chemical, indicates that dermal exposure does not result in measurable systemic exposure. The available data, however, were not sufficient to support the safety of Quassin, Brucine, and Brucine Sulfate, Alcohol Denat. denatured with those denaturants, or SD Alcohol 39 and SD Alcohol 40 (SD Alcohols denatured with Quassin, Brucine, and/or Brucine Sulfate), and in order for the Expert Panel to reach a conclusion for these denaturants, additional data are needed.
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Bruinen de Bruin Y, Hakkinen PB, Lahaniatis M, Papameletiou D, Del Pozo C, Reina V, Van Engelen J, Heinemeyer G, Viso AC, Rodriguez C, Jantunen M. Risk management measures for chemicals in consumer products: documentation, assessment, and communication across the supply chain. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2007; 17 Suppl 1:S55-66. [PMID: 17609687 DOI: 10.1038/sj.jes.7500587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
This paper analyzes the way risk management measures (RMMs) for consumer products have been used to date in authority and industry risk assessments. A working concept for consumer product RMMs is developed, aimed at controlling, limiting or avoiding exposures, and helping to insure the safe use (or handling) of a substance as part of a consumer product. Particular focus is placed on new requirements introduced by REACH (registration, evaluation, and authorization of chemicals). A RMMs categorization approach is also developed, dividing consumer product RMMs into those that are product integrated and those that are communicated to consumers. For each of these categories, RMMs for normal use, accidental use or misuse need to be distinguished. The level of detail for documenting, assessing and communicating RMMs across supply chains can vary, depending on the type of the assessment (tiered approach). Information on RMMs was collected from published sources to demonstrate that a taxonomical approach using standard descriptors for RMMs libraries is needed for effective information exchange across supply chains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri Bruinen de Bruin
- European Commission-Joint Research Centre, Institute for Health and Consumer Protection Physical and Chemical Exposure Unit, Ispra, Italy
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Abstract
The palatability of oral medications, many of which are quite bitter, plays an important role in achieving compliance in pediatric patients. We tested the hypothesis that the addition of a sodium salt to some, but not all, bitter tasting liquids enhances acceptance and reduces the perceived bitterness in 7- to 10-year-old children and their mothers. For both children and adults, sodium gluconate significantly suppressed the perceived bitterness and enhanced the acceptance of urea and caffeine whereas the reverse was true for another bitter stimulus, Tetralone. Because children preferred salted solutions more than did adults, these data suggest that the use of sodium salts may be an especially effective strategy for reducing the bitterness of some medicines and facilitating compliance among pediatric populations. However, based on sodium's differential ability to inhibit bitterness, as has been shown here with children and adults, clearly each drug of interest must be evaluated separately.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A Mennella
- Monell Chemical Senses Center, 3500 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104-3308, USA.
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Richard S, Davies DC. Comparison of methyl anthranilate and denatonium benzoate as aversants for learning in chicks. Physiol Behav 2000; 70:521-5. [PMID: 11111006 DOI: 10.1016/s0031-9384(00)00298-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Methyl anthranilate (MeA) has been widely used as a taste aversant for domestic chicks in the one-trial passive avoidance learning (PAL) task. However, MeA has a strong smell that may be aversive to chicks. Therefore, odourless denatonium benzoate (DB) has been suggested as an alternative taste aversant in PAL. The present study was designed to compare the efficacy of MeA and DB as aversants in the one-trial PAL task. In this task, young chicks peck a visually conspicuous bead coated with a taste aversant and in a single trial learn to avoid a similar, but uncoated bead at subsequent presentation. In Experiment 1, chicks were trained using a silver-coloured bead coated with 100% MeA, 0.5% DB or distilled water. After 3 h, MeA-trained, but not DB-trained chicks, exhibited significantly higher avoidance of the test bead than water-trained chicks. In Experiment 2, three pre-training presentations of an uncoated red bead preceded training with the silver bead. MeA-trained chicks showed significantly higher avoidance of the test bead than water-trained chicks. The numbers of water- and DB-trained chicks that avoided pecking the test bead were low and not significantly different from each other. However, DB-trained chicks exhibited significantly longer latencies to peck the test bead than water-trained chicks, indicating that they had retained some memory of the task. Thus, 0.5% DB is a weaker aversant than MeA and it does not induce high levels of learning in the one-trial PAL task. However, DB may prove useful for investigating weakly reinforced learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Richard
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, St. George's Hospital Medical School, Cranmer Terrace, Tooting, London SW17 0RE, UK
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Abstract
The bitter rejection response consists of a suite of withdrawal reflexes and negative affective responses. It is generally assumed to have evolved as a way to facilitate avoidance of foods that are poisonous because they usually taste bitter to humans. Using previously published studies, the present paper examines the relationship between bitterness and toxicity in mammals, and then assesses the ecological costs and benefits of the bitter rejection response in carnivorous, omnivorous, and herbivorous (grazing and browsing) mammals. If the bitter rejection response accurately predicts the potential toxicity of foods, then one would expect the threshold for the response to be lower for highly toxic compounds than for nontoxic compounds. The data revealed no such relationship. Bitter taste thresholds varied independently of toxicity thresholds, indicating that the bitter rejection response is just as likely to be elicited by a harmless bitter food as it is by a harmful one. Thus, it is not necessarily in an animal's best interest to have an extremely high or low bitter threshold. Based on this observation, it was hypothesized that the adaptiveness of the bitter rejection response depends upon the relative occurrence of bitter and potentially toxic compounds in an animal's diet. Animals with a relatively high occurrence of bitter and potentially toxic compounds in their diet (e.g., browsing herbivores) were predicted to have evolved a high bitter taste threshold and tolerance to dietary poisons. Such an adaptation would be necessary because a browser cannot "afford" to reject all foods that are bitter and potentially toxic without unduly restricting its dietary options. At the other extreme, animals that rarely encounter bitter and potentially toxic compounds in their diet (e.g., carnivores) were predicted to have evolved a low bitter threshold. Carnivores could "afford" to utilize such a stringent rejection mechanism because foods containing bitter and potentially toxic compounds constitute a small portion of their diet. Since the low bitter threshold would reduce substantially the risk of ingesting anything poisonous, carnivores were also expected to have a relatively low tolerance to dietary poisons. This hypothesis was supported by a comparison involving 30 mammal species, in which a suggestive relationship was found between quinine hydrochloride sensitivity and trophic group, with carnivores > omnivores > grazers > browsers. Further support for the hypothesis was provided by a comparison across browsers and grazers in terms of the production of tannin-binding salivary proteins, which probably represent an adaptation for reducing the bitterness and astringency of tannins.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- J I Glendinning
- ARL Division of Neurobiology, University of Arizona, Tucson 85721
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Schiffman SS, Gatlin LA, Sattely-Miller EA, Graham BG, Heiman SA, Stagner WC, Erickson RP. The effect of sweeteners on bitter taste in young and elderly subjects. Brain Res Bull 1994; 35:189-204. [PMID: 7812797 DOI: 10.1016/0361-9230(94)90122-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to quantify the degree of reduction in perceived bitterness by sweeteners at both threshold and suprathreshold concentrations of bitter compounds. Detection and recognition thresholds were determined for six bitter compounds (caffeine, denatonium benzoate, magnesium chloride, quinine hydrochloride, sucrose octaacetate, and urea) in the absence and presence of several suprathreshold concentrations of five sweeteners. The sweeteners were: sucrose, aspartame, sodium saccharin, mannitol, and sorbitol. Polycose was also tested along with the sweeteners. The degree to which bitter thresholds were affected by the addition of sweeteners was dependent on the chemical classification of the sweeteners and their concentrations. In general, the natural sweeteners, sucrose, mannitol, and sorbitol, were more effective than the noncaloric sweeteners, aspartame and sodium saccharin, in elevating the detection and recognition thresholds of the bitter compounds. A sweetness intensity approximating that of 6% sucrose (0.175 M sucrose) or greater was required to elevate thresholds. For elderly subjects, sweeteners did not significantly elevate thresholds for denatonium benzoate and sucrose octaacetate. The degree to which sorbitol and sucrose can decrease the perceived bitterness intensity of suprathreshold concentrations of the six bitter compounds was also determined. The concentrations of sweeteners and bitter compounds were selected to be of moderate to high subjective intensity. The levels of sweeteners used in the mixtures were: sucrose (none, 0.946 M, and 2.13 M) and sorbitol (none, 2.1 M, and 3.68 M). Both sweeteners significantly reduced the bitterness ratings of almost every concentration of the six bitter compounds. The greatest reductions in bitterness were 87.0% for 0.192 microM denatonium benzoate mixed with 2.13 M sucrose and 84.7% for 1.8 M urea mixed with 3.68 M sorbitol.
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Affiliation(s)
- S S Schiffman
- Department of Psychology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708-0086
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Lawless HT, Hammer LD, Corina MD. Aversions to bitterness and accidental poisonings among preschool children. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY. CLINICAL TOXICOLOGY 1982; 19:951-64. [PMID: 7182523 DOI: 10.3109/15563658208992527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Individual differences in responsiveness to bitterness were studied among children with and without histories of accidental ingestion of toxic substances. The oral behaviors of 56 children between the ages of 12 and 41 months were videotaped during two minute test periods with lollipops containing different concentrations of bitter sucrose octaacetate (SOA). Videotapes were scored for mouthing times, numbers of oral contacts and latencies to mouthing for each stimulus. Mouthing time was the most sensitive dependent measure examined. Both groups rejected pops with added SOA, decreasing mouthing times as SOA concentration increased. Mouthing times for children with histories of accidental ingestion were slightly lower overall. These results suggest that lowered reactivity to tastes is not a predisposing factor in accidental ingestions, and that bitter substances have some value as deterrents to ingestion for this age group. Rejection of bitter pops by children closely paralleled ratings of bitterness by adult judges.
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