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Olsson-Francis K, Doran PT, Ilyin V, Raulin F, Rettberg P, Kminek G, Mier MPZ, Coustenis A, Hedman N, Shehhi OA, Ammannito E, Bernardini J, Fujimoto M, Grasset O, Groen F, Hayes A, Gallagher S, Kumar K P, Mustin C, Nakamura A, Seasly E, Suzuki Y, Peng J, Prieto-Ballesteros O, Sinibaldi S, Xu K, Zaitsev M. The COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy for robotic missions to Mars: A review of current scientific knowledge and future perspectives. LIFE SCIENCES IN SPACE RESEARCH 2023; 36:27-35. [PMID: 36682826 DOI: 10.1016/j.lssr.2022.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Revised: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Planetary protection guidance for martian exploration has become a notable point of discussion over the last decade. This is due to increased scientific interest in the habitability of the red planet with updated techniques, missions becoming more attainable by smaller space agencies, and both the private sector and governments engaging in activities to facilitate commercial opportunities and human-crewed missions. The international standards for planetary protection have been developed through consultation with the scientific community and the space agencies by the Committee on Space Research's (COSPAR) Panel on Planetary Protection, which provides guidance for compliance with the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. In 2021, the Panel evaluated recent scientific data and literature regarding the planetary protection requirements for Mars and the implications of this on the guidelines. In this paper, we discuss the COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy for Mars, review the new scientific findings and discuss the next steps required to enable the next generation of robotic missions to Mars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Olsson-Francis
- AstrobiologyOU, Faculty of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK.
| | - Peter T Doran
- Department of Geology and Geophysics, Louisiana State, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
| | - Vyacheslav Ilyin
- Institute for Biomedical Problems, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Francois Raulin
- Univ Paris Est Cr Univ Paris Est Créteil and Université Paris Cité, CNRS, LISA, F-94010 Créteil, France
| | - Petra Rettberg
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology Department, Research Group Astrobiology, 51147 Cologne, Germany
| | | | - María-Paz Zorzano Mier
- Centro deAstrobiología (CAB), CSIC-INTA, Carretera de Ajalvir km 4, 28850 Torrejón de Ardoz, Madrid, Spain
| | - Athena Coustenis
- LESIA, Paris Observatory, PSL University, CNRS, Paris University, 92195 Meudon Cedex, France
| | - Niklas Hedman
- Committee, Policy and Legal Affairs Section, Office for Outer Space Affairs, United Nations Office at Vienna, Austria
| | | | | | - James Bernardini
- Office of Safety and Mission Assurance, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC 20546, USA
| | - Masaki Fujimoto
- Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS), Kanagawa, Japan
| | | | - Frank Groen
- Office of Safety and Mission Assurance, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC 20546, USA
| | - Alex Hayes
- Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-6801, USA
| | - Sarah Gallagher
- Institute of Earth and Space Exploration, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | | | | | - Akiko Nakamura
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science, The University of Tokyo,7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Elaine Seasly
- Office of Safety and Mission Assurance, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC 20546, USA
| | - Yohey Suzuki
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science, The University of Tokyo,7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Jing Peng
- China National Space Administration, Beijing, China
| | - Olga Prieto-Ballesteros
- Centro deAstrobiología (CAB), CSIC-INTA, Carretera de Ajalvir km 4, 28850 Torrejón de Ardoz, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Kanyan Xu
- Laboratory of Space Microbiology, Shenzhou Space Biotechnology Group, Chinese Academy of Space Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Maxim Zaitsev
- Planetary Physics Dept., Space Research Inst. of Russian Acad. of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
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2
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Simões MF, Antunes A. Microbial Pathogenicity in Space. Pathogens 2021; 10:450. [PMID: 33918768 PMCID: PMC8069885 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10040450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Revised: 04/04/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
After a less dynamic period, space exploration is now booming. There has been a sharp increase in the number of current missions and also of those being planned for the near future. Microorganisms will be an inevitable component of these missions, mostly because they hitchhike, either attached to space technology, like spaceships or spacesuits, to organic matter and even to us (human microbiome), or to other life forms we carry on our missions. Basically, we never travel alone. Therefore, we need to have a clear understanding of how dangerous our "travel buddies" can be; given that, during space missions, our access to medical assistance and medical drugs will be very limited. Do we explore space together with pathogenic microorganisms? Do our hitchhikers adapt to the space conditions, as well as we do? Do they become pathogenic during that adaptation process? The current review intends to better clarify these questions in order to facilitate future activities in space. More technological advances are needed to guarantee the success of all missions and assure the reduction of any possible health and environmental risks for the astronauts and for the locations being explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Filipa Simões
- State Key Laboratory of Lunar and Planetary Sciences (SKLPlanets), Macau University of Science and Technology (MUST), Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau, China;
- China National Space Administration (CNSA), Macau Center for Space Exploration and Science, Macau, China
| | - André Antunes
- State Key Laboratory of Lunar and Planetary Sciences (SKLPlanets), Macau University of Science and Technology (MUST), Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau, China;
- China National Space Administration (CNSA), Macau Center for Space Exploration and Science, Macau, China
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3
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Exploration of space to achieve scientific breakthroughs. Biotechnol Adv 2020; 43:107572. [PMID: 32540473 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Living organisms adapt to changing environments using their amazing flexibility to remodel themselves by a process called evolution. Environmental stress causes selective pressure and is associated with genetic and phenotypic shifts for better modifications, maintenance, and functioning of organismal systems. The natural evolution process can be used in complement to rational strain engineering for the development of desired traits or phenotypes as well as for the production of novel biomaterials through the imposition of one or more selective pressures. Space provides a unique environment of stressors (e.g., weightlessness and high radiation) that organisms have never experienced on Earth. Cells in the outer space reorganize and develop or activate a range of molecular responses that lead to changes in cellular properties. Exposure of cells to the outer space will lead to the development of novel variants more efficiently than on Earth. For instance, natural crop varieties can be generated with higher nutrition value, yield, and improved features, such as resistance against high and low temperatures, salt stress, and microbial and pest attacks. The review summarizes the literature on the parameters of outer space that affect the growth and behavior of cells and organisms as well as complex colloidal systems. We illustrate an understanding of gravity-related basic biological mechanisms and enlighten the possibility to explore the outer space environment for application-oriented aspects. This will stimulate biological research in the pursuit of innovative approaches for the future of agriculture and health on Earth.
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Tait AW, Gagen EJ, Wilson SA, Tomkins AG, Southam G. Eukaryotic Colonization of Micrometer-Scale Cracks in Rocks: A "Microfluidics" Experiment Using Naturally Weathered Meteorites from the Nullarbor Plain, Australia. ASTROBIOLOGY 2020; 20:364-374. [PMID: 31873039 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2019.2077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The advent of microfluidics has revolutionized the way we understand how microorganisms propagate through microporous spaces. Here, we apply this understanding to the study of how endolithic environmental microorganisms colonize the interiors of sterile rock. The substrates used for our study are stony meteorites from the Nullarbor Plain, Australia; a semiarid limestone karst that provides an ideal setting for preserving meteorites. Periodic flooding of the Nullarbor provides a mechanism by which microorganisms and exogenous nutrients may infiltrate meteorites. Our laboratory experiments show that environmental microorganisms reach depths greater than 400 μm by propagating through existing brecciation, passing through cracks no wider than the diameter of a resident cell (i.e., ∼5 μm). Our observations are consistent with the propagation of these eukaryotic cells via growth and cell division rather than motility. The morphology of the microorganisms changed as a result of propagation through micrometer-scale cracks, as has been observed previously for bacteria on microfluidic chips. It has been suggested that meteorites could have served as preferred habitats for microorganisms on ancient Mars. Based on our results, the depths reached by terrestrial microorganisms within meteorites would be sufficient to mitigate against the harmful effects of ionizing radiation, such as UV light, in Earth's deserts and potentially on Mars, if similar processes of microbial colonization had once been active there. Thus, meteorites landing in ancient lakes on Mars, that later dried out, could have been some of the last inhabited locations on the surface, serving as refugia before the planet's surface became inhospitable. Finally, our observations suggest that terrestrial microorganisms can colonize very fine cracks within meteorites (and potentially spaceships and rovers) on unexpectedly short timescales, with important implications for both recognition of extraterrestrial life in returned geological samples and planetary protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alastair W Tait
- School of Earth, Atmosphere and Environment, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
- Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, United Kingdom
| | - Emma J Gagen
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Australia
| | - Siobhan A Wilson
- School of Earth, Atmosphere and Environment, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
- Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Andrew G Tomkins
- School of Earth, Atmosphere and Environment, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Gordon Southam
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Australia
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Betts BH, Warmflash D, Fraze RE, Friedman L, Vorobyova E, Lilburn TG, Smith A, Rettberg P, Jönsson KI, Ciftcioglu N, Fox GE, Svitek T, Kirschvinck JL, Moeller R, Wassmann M, Berger T. Phobos LIFE (Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment). ASTROBIOLOGY 2019; 19:1177-1185. [PMID: 31397580 PMCID: PMC6775494 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2018.1904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The Planetary Society's Phobos Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment (Phobos LIFE) flew in the sample return capsule of the Russian Federal Space Agency's Phobos Grunt mission and was to have been a test of one aspect of the hypothesis that life can move between nearby planets within ejected rocks. Although the Phobos Grunt mission failed, we present here the scientific and engineering design and motivation of the Phobos LIFE experiment to assist with the scientific and engineering design of similar future experiments. Phobos LIFE flew selected organisms in a simulated meteoroid. The 34-month voyage would have been the first such test to occur in the high-radiation environment outside the protection of Earth's magnetosphere for more than a few days. The patented Phobos LIFE "biomodule" is an 88 g cylinder consisting of a titanium outer shell, several types of redundant seals, and 31 individual Delrin sample containers. Phobos LIFE contained 10 different organisms, representing all three domains of life, and one soil sample. The organisms are all very well characterized, most with sequenced genomes. Most are extremophiles, and most have flown in low Earth orbit. Upon return from space, the health and characteristics of organisms were to have been compared with controls that remained on Earth and have not yet been opened.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Raymond E. Fraze
- Stellar Exploration, Inc., San Luis Obispo, California, USA
- Vector Design, Hereford, Arizona, USA
| | | | - Elena Vorobyova
- Space Research Institute (IKI), Moscow, Russia
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | | | - Amy Smith
- George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, USA
| | - Petra Rettberg
- German Aerospace Center (DLR e. V.), Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology Department, Cologne (Köln), Germany
| | - K. Ingemar Jönsson
- Department of Environmental Science and Bioscience, Kristianstad University, Kristianstad, Sweden
| | | | | | - Tomas Svitek
- Stellar Exploration, Inc., San Luis Obispo, California, USA
| | - Joseph L. Kirschvinck
- Caltech, Pasadena, California, USA
- Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ralf Moeller
- German Aerospace Center (DLR e. V.), Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology Department, Cologne (Köln), Germany
| | - Marko Wassmann
- German Aerospace Center (DLR e. V.), Executive Board Division Space Research and Development, Programme Space R&D, Cologne (Köln), Germany
| | - Thomas Berger
- German Aerospace Center (DLR e. V.), Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology Department, Cologne (Köln), Germany
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6
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de Vera JP, Alawi M, Backhaus T, Baqué M, Billi D, Böttger U, Berger T, Bohmeier M, Cockell C, Demets R, de la Torre Noetzel R, Edwards H, Elsaesser A, Fagliarone C, Fiedler A, Foing B, Foucher F, Fritz J, Hanke F, Herzog T, Horneck G, Hübers HW, Huwe B, Joshi J, Kozyrovska N, Kruchten M, Lasch P, Lee N, Leuko S, Leya T, Lorek A, Martínez-Frías J, Meessen J, Moritz S, Moeller R, Olsson-Francis K, Onofri S, Ott S, Pacelli C, Podolich O, Rabbow E, Reitz G, Rettberg P, Reva O, Rothschild L, Sancho LG, Schulze-Makuch D, Selbmann L, Serrano P, Szewzyk U, Verseux C, Wadsworth J, Wagner D, Westall F, Wolter D, Zucconi L. Limits of Life and the Habitability of Mars: The ESA Space Experiment BIOMEX on the ISS. ASTROBIOLOGY 2019; 19:145-157. [PMID: 30742496 PMCID: PMC6383581 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2018.1897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
BIOMEX (BIOlogy and Mars EXperiment) is an ESA/Roscosmos space exposure experiment housed within the exposure facility EXPOSE-R2 outside the Zvezda module on the International Space Station (ISS). The design of the multiuser facility supports-among others-the BIOMEX investigations into the stability and level of degradation of space-exposed biosignatures such as pigments, secondary metabolites, and cell surfaces in contact with a terrestrial and Mars analog mineral environment. In parallel, analysis on the viability of the investigated organisms has provided relevant data for evaluation of the habitability of Mars, for the limits of life, and for the likelihood of an interplanetary transfer of life (theory of lithopanspermia). In this project, lichens, archaea, bacteria, cyanobacteria, snow/permafrost algae, meristematic black fungi, and bryophytes from alpine and polar habitats were embedded, grown, and cultured on a mixture of martian and lunar regolith analogs or other terrestrial minerals. The organisms and regolith analogs and terrestrial mineral mixtures were then exposed to space and to simulated Mars-like conditions by way of the EXPOSE-R2 facility. In this special issue, we present the first set of data obtained in reference to our investigation into the habitability of Mars and limits of life. This project was initiated and implemented by the BIOMEX group, an international and interdisciplinary consortium of 30 institutes in 12 countries on 3 continents. Preflight tests for sample selection, results from ground-based simulation experiments, and the space experiments themselves are presented and include a complete overview of the scientific processes required for this space experiment and postflight analysis. The presented BIOMEX concept could be scaled up to future exposure experiments on the Moon and will serve as a pretest in low Earth orbit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Pierre de Vera
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Planetary Research, Management and Infrastructure, Research Group Astrobiological Laboratories, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mashal Alawi
- GFZ, German Research Centre for Geosciences, Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, Section 5.3 Geomicrobiology, Telegrafenberg, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Theresa Backhaus
- Institut für Botanik, Heinrich-Heine-Universität (HHU), Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Mickael Baqué
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Planetary Research, Management and Infrastructure, Research Group Astrobiological Laboratories, Berlin, Germany
| | - Daniela Billi
- University of Rome Tor Vergata, Department of Biology, Rome, Italy
| | - Ute Böttger
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute for Optical Sensor Systems, Berlin, Germany
| | - Thomas Berger
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology Department, Köln, Germany
| | - Maria Bohmeier
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology Department, Köln, Germany
| | - Charles Cockell
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - René Demets
- European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC), European Space Agency (ESA), Noordwijk, the Netherlands
| | - Rosa de la Torre Noetzel
- Departamento de Observación de la Tierra, Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial (INTA), Madrid, Spain
| | - Howell Edwards
- Raman Spectroscopy Group, University Analytical Centre, Division of Chemical and Forensic Sciences, University of Bradford, West Yorkshire, UK
| | - Andreas Elsaesser
- Institut für experimentelle Physik, Experimentelle Molekulare Biophysik, Frei Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Annelie Fiedler
- University of Potsdam, Biodiversity Research/Systematic Botany, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Bernard Foing
- European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC), European Space Agency (ESA), Noordwijk, the Netherlands
| | - Frédéric Foucher
- CNRS, Centre de Biophysique Moléculaire, UPR 4301, Orléans, France
| | - Jörg Fritz
- Museum für Naturkunde - Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science, Berlin, Germany
| | - Franziska Hanke
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute for Optical Sensor Systems, Berlin, Germany
| | - Thomas Herzog
- TH Wildau (Technical University of Applied Sciences), Wildau, Germany
| | - Gerda Horneck
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology Department, Köln, Germany
| | - Heinz-Wilhelm Hübers
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute for Optical Sensor Systems, Berlin, Germany
| | - Björn Huwe
- University of Potsdam, Biodiversity Research/Systematic Botany, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Jasmin Joshi
- University of Potsdam, Biodiversity Research/Systematic Botany, Potsdam, Germany
- Hochschule für Technik HSR Rapperswil, Institute for Landscape and Open Space, Rapperswil, Switzerland
| | | | - Martha Kruchten
- Institut für Botanik, Heinrich-Heine-Universität (HHU), Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Peter Lasch
- Robert Koch Institute, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Berlin, Germany
| | - Natuschka Lee
- Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Stefan Leuko
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology Department, Köln, Germany
| | - Thomas Leya
- Extremophile Research & Biobank CCCryo, Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Branch Bioanalytics and Bioprocesses (IZI-BB), Potsdam, Germany
| | - Andreas Lorek
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Planetary Research, Management and Infrastructure, Research Group Astrobiological Laboratories, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Joachim Meessen
- Institut für Botanik, Heinrich-Heine-Universität (HHU), Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Sophie Moritz
- University of Potsdam, Biodiversity Research/Systematic Botany, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Ralf Moeller
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology Department, Köln, Germany
| | - Karen Olsson-Francis
- School of Environment, Earth and Ecosystem Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK
| | - Silvano Onofri
- Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Sieglinde Ott
- Institut für Botanik, Heinrich-Heine-Universität (HHU), Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Claudia Pacelli
- Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Olga Podolich
- Institute of Molecular Biology & Genetics of NASU, Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Elke Rabbow
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology Department, Köln, Germany
| | - Günther Reitz
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology Department, Köln, Germany
| | - Petra Rettberg
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology Department, Köln, Germany
| | - Oleg Reva
- Centre for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | | | | | | | - Laura Selbmann
- Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
- Italian National Antarctic Museum (MNA), Mycological Section, Genoa, Italy
| | - Paloma Serrano
- GFZ, German Research Centre for Geosciences, Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, Section 5.3 Geomicrobiology, Telegrafenberg, Potsdam, Germany
- AWI, Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Ulrich Szewzyk
- TU Berlin, Institute of Environmental Technology, Environmental Microbiology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Cyprien Verseux
- University of Rome Tor Vergata, Department of Biology, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Dirk Wagner
- GFZ, German Research Centre for Geosciences, Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, Section 5.3 Geomicrobiology, Telegrafenberg, Potsdam, Germany
- University of Potsdam, Institute of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Frances Westall
- CNRS, Centre de Biophysique Moléculaire, UPR 4301, Orléans, France
| | - David Wolter
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Planetary Research, Management and Infrastructure, Research Group Astrobiological Laboratories, Berlin, Germany
| | - Laura Zucconi
- Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
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7
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Airborne Microorganisms in Antarctica: Transport, Survival and Establishment. SPRINGER POLAR SCIENCES 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-02786-5_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/08/2022]
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8
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de la Torre Noetzel R, Miller AZ, de la Rosa JM, Pacelli C, Onofri S, García Sancho L, Cubero B, Lorek A, Wolter D, de Vera JP. Cellular Responses of the Lichen Circinaria gyrosa in Mars-Like Conditions. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:308. [PMID: 29556220 PMCID: PMC5845166 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2017] [Accepted: 02/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Lichens are extremely resistant organisms that colonize harsh climatic areas, some of them defined as "Mars-analog sites." There still remain many unsolved questions as to how lichens survive under such extreme conditions. Several studies have been performed to test the resistance of various lichen species under space and in simulated Mars-like conditions. The results led to the proposal that Circinaria gyrosa (Lecanoromycetes, Ascomycota) is one of the most durable astrobiological model lichens. However, although C. gyrosa has been exposed to Mars-like environmental conditions while in a latent state, it has not been exposed in its physiologically active mode. We hypothesize that the astrobiological test system "Circinaria gyrosa," could be able to be physiologically active and to survive under Mars-like conditions in a simulation chamber, based on previous studies performed at dessicated-dormant stage under simulated Mars-like conditions, that showed a complete recover of the PSII activity (Sánchez et al., 2012). Epifluorescence and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) showed that living algal cells were more abundant in samples exposed to niche conditions, which simulated the conditions in micro-fissures and micro-caves close to the surface that have limited scattered or time-dependent light exposure, than in samples exposed to full UV radiation. The medulla was not structurally affected, suggesting that the niche exposure conditions did not disturb the lichen thalli structure and morphology as revealed by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM). In addition, changes in the lichen thalli chemical composition were determined by analytical pyrolysis. The chromatograms resulting from analytical pyrolysis at 500°C revealed that lichen samples exposed to niche conditions and full UV radiation consisted primarily of glycosidic compounds, lipids, and sterols, which are typical constituents of the cell walls. However, specific differences could be detected and used as markers of the UV-induced damage to the lichen membranes. Based on its viability responses after rehydration, our study shows that the test lichen survived the 30-day incubation in the Mars chamber particularly under niche conditions. However, the photobiont was not able to photosynthesize under the Mars-like conditions, which indicates that the surface of Mars is not a habitable place for C. gyrosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa de la Torre Noetzel
- Departamento de Observación de la Tierra, Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Z Miller
- Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Agrobiología de Sevilla, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Sevilla, Spain
| | - José M de la Rosa
- Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Agrobiología de Sevilla, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Claudia Pacelli
- Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Silvano Onofri
- Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | | | - Beatriz Cubero
- Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Agrobiología de Sevilla, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Andreas Lorek
- German Aerospace Center (DLR) Berlin, Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, Germany
| | - David Wolter
- German Aerospace Center (DLR) Berlin, Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jean P de Vera
- German Aerospace Center (DLR) Berlin, Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, Germany
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9
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Olsson-Francis K, Ramkissoon NK, Price AB, Slade DJ, Macey MC, Pearson VK. The Study of Microbial Survival in Extraterrestrial Environments Using Low Earth Orbit and Ground-Based Experiments. J Microbiol Methods 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.mim.2018.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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10
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Griko YV, Rask JC, Raychev R. Advantage of Animal Models with Metabolic Flexibility for Space Research Beyond Low Earth Orbit. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1089/space.2016.0024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuri V. Griko
- Space Biosciences Division, NASA-Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California
| | - Jon C. Rask
- Space Biosciences Division, NASA-Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California
- KBRwyle, Moffett Field, California
| | - Raycho Raychev
- Space Challenges Program, EnduroSat, Inc., Sofia, Bulgaria
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11
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Rabbow E, Rettberg P, Parpart A, Panitz C, Schulte W, Molter F, Jaramillo E, Demets R, Weiß P, Willnecker R. EXPOSE-R2: The Astrobiological ESA Mission on Board of the International Space Station. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1533. [PMID: 28861052 PMCID: PMC5560112 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 07/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
On July 23, 2014, the Progress cargo spacecraft 56P was launched from Baikonur to the International Space Station (ISS), carrying EXPOSE-R2, the third ESA (European Space Agency) EXPOSE facility, the second EXPOSE on the outside platform of the Russian Zvezda module, with four international astrobiological experiments into space. More than 600 biological samples of archaea, bacteria (as biofilms and in planktonic form), lichens, fungi, plant seeds, triops eggs, mosses and 150 samples of organic compounds were exposed to the harsh space environment and to parameters similar to those on the Mars surface. Radiation dosimeters distributed over the whole facility complemented the scientific payload. Three extravehicular activities later the chemical samples were returned to Earth on March 2, 2016, with Soyuz 44S, having spent 588 days in space. The biological samples arrived back later, on June 18, 2016, with 45S, after a total duration in space of 531 days. The exposure of the samples to Low Earth Orbit vacuum lasted for 531 days and was divided in two parts: protected against solar irradiation during the first 62 days, followed by exposure to solar radiation during the subsequent 469 days. In parallel to the space mission, a Mission Ground Reference (MGR) experiment with a flight identical Hardware and a complete flight identical set of samples was performed at the premises of DLR (German Aerospace Center) in Cologne by MUSC (Microgravity User Support Center), according to the mission data either downloaded from the ISS (temperature data, facility status, inner pressure status) or provided by RedShift Design and Engineering BVBA, Belgium (calculated ultra violet radiation fluence data). In this paper, the EXPOSE-R2 facility, the experimental samples, mission parameters, environmental parameters, and the overall mission and MGR sequences are described, building the background for the research papers of the individual experiments, their analysis and results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elke Rabbow
- Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology, German Aerospace CenterCologne, Germany
| | - Petra Rettberg
- Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology, German Aerospace CenterCologne, Germany
| | - Andre Parpart
- Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology, German Aerospace CenterCologne, Germany
| | - Corinna Panitz
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Uniklinik RWTH AachenAachen, Germany
| | | | | | | | - René Demets
- European Space Research and Technology Centre, European Space AgencyNoordwijk, Netherlands
| | - Peter Weiß
- Microgravity User Support Center, German Aerospace CenterCologne, Germany
| | - Rainer Willnecker
- Microgravity User Support Center, German Aerospace CenterCologne, Germany
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Ranawat P, Rawat S. Radiation resistance in thermophiles: mechanisms and applications. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2017; 33:112. [DOI: 10.1007/s11274-017-2279-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2016] [Accepted: 04/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Moissl-Eichinger C, Cockell C, Rettberg P. Venturing into new realms? Microorganisms in space. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2016; 40:722-37. [PMID: 27354346 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuw015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the biggest challenges of science is the determination of whether extraterrestrial life exists. Although potential habitable areas might be available for complex life, it is more likely that microbial life could exist in space. Many extremotolerant and extremophilic microbes have been found to be able to withstand numerous, combined environmental factors, such as high or low temperatures and pressures, high-salt conditions, high doses of radiation, desiccation or nutrient limitations. They may even survive the transit from one planet to another. Terrestrial Mars-analogue sites are one focus of researchers, in order to understand the microbial diversity in preparation for upcoming space missions aimed at the detection of life. However, such missions could also pose a risk with respect to contamination of the extraterrestrial environment by accidentally transferred terrestrial microorganisms. Closer to the Earth, the International Space Station is the most enclosed habitat, where humans work and live-and with them numerous microorganisms. It is still unknown how microbes adapt to this environment, possibly even creating a risk for the crew. Information on the microbiology of the ISS will have an impact on the planning and implementation of long-term human spaceflights in order to ensure a safe, stable and balanced microbiome on board.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Moissl-Eichinger
- Department for Internal Medicine, Medical University of Graz, 8036 Graz, Austria BioTechMed Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Charles Cockell
- UK Centre for Astrobiology, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH10 4EP, UK
| | - Petra Rettberg
- Radiation Biology Department, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center (DLR), 51147 Cologne, Germany
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Lucas RM, Norval M, Neale RE, Young AR, de Gruijl FR, Takizawa Y, van der Leun JC. The consequences for human health of stratospheric ozone depletion in association with other environmental factors. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2015; 14:53-87. [DOI: 10.1039/c4pp90033b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Ozone depletion, climate and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. M. Lucas
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health
- The Australian National University
- Canberra 2601
- Australia
- Telethon Kids Institute
| | - M. Norval
- Biomedical Sciences
- University of Edinburgh Medical School
- Edinburgh EH8 9AG
- UK
| | - R. E. Neale
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute
- Brisbane 4029
- Australia
| | - A. R. Young
- King's College London (KCL)
- St John's Institute of Dermatology
- London SE1 9RT
- UK
| | - F. R. de Gruijl
- Department of Dermatology
- Leiden University Medical Centre
- NL-2300 RC Leiden
- The Netherlands
| | - Y. Takizawa
- Akita University Graduate School of Medicine
- Akita Prefecture
- Japan
- National Institute for Minamata Diseases
- Kumamoto Prefecture
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Abstract
The resiliency and adaptive ability of microbial life in real time on Earth relies heavily upon horizontal gene transfer. Based on that knowledge, how likely is earth based microbial life to colonize extraterrestrial targets such as Mars? To address this question, we consider manned and unmanned space exploration, the resident microbiota that is likely to inhabit those vehicles, the adaptive potential of that microbiota in an extraterrestrial setting especially with regards to mobile genetic elements, and the likelihood that Mars like environments could initiate and sustain colonization.
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Wassmann M, Moeller R, Rabbow E, Panitz C, Horneck G, Reitz G, Douki T, Cadet J, Stan-Lotter H, Cockell CS, Rettberg P. Survival of spores of the UV-resistant Bacillus subtilis strain MW01 after exposure to low-earth orbit and simulated martian conditions: data from the space experiment ADAPT on EXPOSE-E. ASTROBIOLOGY 2012; 12:498-507. [PMID: 22680695 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2011.0772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
In the space experiment "Molecular adaptation strategies of microorganisms to different space and planetary UV climate conditions" (ADAPT), bacterial endospores of the highly UV-resistant Bacillus subtilis strain MW01 were exposed to low-Earth orbit (LEO) and simulated martian surface conditions for 559 days on board the European Space Agency's exposure facility EXPOSE-E, mounted outside the International Space Station. The survival of B. subtilis MW01 spores from both assays (LEO and simulated martian conditions) was determined by a colony-formation assay after retrieval. It was clearly shown that solar extraterrestrial UV radiation (λ≥110 nm) as well as the martian UV spectrum (λ≥200 nm) was the most deleterious factor applied; in some samples only a few spore survivors were recovered from B. subtilis MW01 spores exposed in monolayers. However, if shielded from solar irradiation, about 8% of MW01 spores survived in LEO conditions, and 100% survived in simulated martian conditions, compared to the laboratory controls. The results demonstrate the effect of shielding against the high inactivation potential of extraterrestrial solar UV radiation, which limits the chances of survival of even the highly UV-resistant strain of B. subtilis MW01 in the harsh environments of outer space and the martian surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marko Wassmann
- Radiation Biology Department, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Cologne, Germany
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Rabbow E, Rettberg P, Barczyk S, Bohmeier M, Parpart A, Panitz C, Horneck G, von Heise-Rotenburg R, Hoppenbrouwers T, Willnecker R, Baglioni P, Demets R, Dettmann J, Reitz G. EXPOSE-E: an ESA astrobiology mission 1.5 years in space. ASTROBIOLOGY 2012; 12:374-86. [PMID: 22680684 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2011.0760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The multi-user facility EXPOSE-E was designed by the European Space Agency to enable astrobiology research in space (low-Earth orbit). On 7 February 2008, EXPOSE-E was carried to the International Space Station (ISS) on the European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF) platform in the cargo bay of Space Shuttle STS-122 Atlantis. The facility was installed at the starboard cone of the Columbus module by extravehicular activity, where it remained in space for 1.5 years. EXPOSE-E was returned to Earth with STS-128 Discovery on 12 September 2009 for subsequent sample analysis. EXPOSE-E provided accommodation in three exposure trays for a variety of astrobiological test samples that were exposed to selected space conditions: either to space vacuum, solar electromagnetic radiation at >110 nm and cosmic radiation (trays 1 and 3) or to simulated martian surface conditions (tray 2). Data on UV radiation, cosmic radiation, and temperature were measured every 10 s and downlinked by telemetry. A parallel mission ground reference (MGR) experiment was performed on ground with a parallel set of hardware and samples under simulated space conditions. EXPOSE-E performed a successful 1.5-year mission in space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elke Rabbow
- Radiation Biology Department, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center (DLR) , Cologne, Germany.
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Paulino-Lima IG, Janot-Pacheco E, Galante D, Cockell C, Olsson-Francis K, Brucato JR, Baratta GA, Strazzulla G, Merrigan T, McCullough R, Mason N, Lage C. Survival of Deinococcus radiodurans against laboratory-simulated solar wind charged particles. ASTROBIOLOGY 2011; 11:875-882. [PMID: 22059692 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2011.0649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
In this experimental study, cells of the radiation-resistant bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans were exposed to several different sources of radiation chosen to replicate the charged particles found in the solar wind. Naked cells or cells mixed with dust grains (basalt or sandstone) differing in elemental composition were exposed to electrons, protons, and ions to determine the probability of cell survival after irradiation. Doses necessary to reduce the viability of cell population to 10% (LD(10)) were determined under different experimental conditions. The results of this study indicate that low-energy particle radiation (2-4 keV), typically present in the slow component of the solar wind, had no effect on dehydrated cells, even if exposed at fluences only reached in more than 1000 years at Sun-Earth distance (1 AU). Higher-energy ions (200 keV) found in solar flares would inactivate 90% of exposed cells after several events in less than 1 year at 1 AU. When mixed with dust grains, LD(10) increases about 10-fold. These results show that, compared to the highly deleterious effects of UV radiation, solar wind charged particles are relatively benign, and organisms protected under grains from UV radiation would also be protected from the charged particles considered in this study.
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Cockell CS, Rettberg P, Rabbow E, Olsson-Francis K. Exposure of phototrophs to 548 days in low Earth orbit: microbial selection pressures in outer space and on early earth. ISME JOURNAL 2011; 5:1671-82. [PMID: 21593797 DOI: 10.1038/ismej.2011.46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
An epilithic microbial community was launched into low Earth orbit, and exposed to conditions in outer space for 548 days on the European Space Agency EXPOSE-E facility outside the International Space Station. The natural phototroph biofilm was augmented with akinetes of Anabaena cylindrica and vegetative cells of Nostoc commune and Chroococcidiopsis. In space-exposed dark controls, two algae (Chlorella and Rosenvingiella spp.), a cyanobacterium (Gloeocapsa sp.) and two bacteria associated with the natural community survived. Of the augmented organisms, cells of A. cylindrica and Chroococcidiopsis survived, but no cells of N. commune. Only cells of Chroococcidiopsis were cultured from samples exposed to the unattenuated extraterrestrial ultraviolet (UV) spectrum (>110 nm or 200 nm). Raman spectroscopy and bright-field microscopy showed that under these conditions the surface cells were bleached and their carotenoids were destroyed, although cell morphology was preserved. These experiments demonstrate that outer space can act as a selection pressure on the composition of microbial communities. The results obtained from samples exposed to >200 nm UV (simulating the putative worst-case UV exposure on the early Earth) demonstrate the potential for epilithic colonization of land masses during that time, but that UV radiation on anoxic planets can act as a strong selection pressure on surface-dwelling organisms. Finally, these experiments have yielded new phototrophic organisms of potential use in biomass and oxygen production in space exploration.
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20
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Resistance of Microorganisms to Extreme Environmental Conditions and Its Contribution to Astrobiology. SUSTAINABILITY 2010. [DOI: 10.3390/su2061602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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21
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Abstract
The responses of microorganisms (viruses, bacterial cells, bacterial and fungal spores, and lichens) to selected factors of space (microgravity, galactic cosmic radiation, solar UV radiation, and space vacuum) were determined in space and laboratory simulation experiments. In general, microorganisms tend to thrive in the space flight environment in terms of enhanced growth parameters and a demonstrated ability to proliferate in the presence of normally inhibitory levels of antibiotics. The mechanisms responsible for the observed biological responses, however, are not yet fully understood. A hypothesized interaction of microgravity with radiation-induced DNA repair processes was experimentally refuted. The survival of microorganisms in outer space was investigated to tackle questions on the upper boundary of the biosphere and on the likelihood of interplanetary transport of microorganisms. It was found that extraterrestrial solar UV radiation was the most deleterious factor of space. Among all organisms tested, only lichens (Rhizocarpon geographicum and Xanthoria elegans) maintained full viability after 2 weeks in outer space, whereas all other test systems were inactivated by orders of magnitude. Using optical filters and spores of Bacillus subtilis as a biological UV dosimeter, it was found that the current ozone layer reduces the biological effectiveness of solar UV by 3 orders of magnitude. If shielded against solar UV, spores of B. subtilis were capable of surviving in space for up to 6 years, especially if embedded in clay or meteorite powder (artificial meteorites). The data support the likelihood of interplanetary transfer of microorganisms within meteorites, the so-called lithopanspermia hypothesis.
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22
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Lyon DY, Monier JM, Dupraz S, Freissinet C, Simonet P, Vogel TM. Integrity and biological activity of DNA after UV exposure. ASTROBIOLOGY 2010; 10:285-292. [PMID: 20446869 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2009.0359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The field of astrobiology lacks a universal marker with which to indicate the presence of life. This study supports the proposal to use nucleic acids, specifically DNA, as a signature of life (biosignature). In addition to its specificity to living organisms, DNA is a functional molecule that can confer new activities and characteristics to other organisms, following the molecular biology dogma, that is, DNA is transcribed to RNA, which is translated into proteins. Previous criticisms of the use of DNA as a biosignature have asserted that DNA molecules would be destroyed by UV radiation in space. To address this concern, DNA in plasmid form was deposited onto different surfaces and exposed to UVC radiation. The surviving DNA was quantified via the quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Results demonstrate increased survivability of DNA attached to surfaces versus non-adsorbed DNA. The DNA was also tested for biological activity via transformation into the bacterium Acinetobacter sp. and assaying for antibiotic resistance conferred by genes encoded by the plasmid. The success of these methods to detect DNA and its gene products after UV exposure (254 nm, 3.5 J/m(2)s) not only supports the use of the DNA molecule as a biosignature on mineral surfaces but also demonstrates that the DNA retained biological activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delina Y Lyon
- Environmental Microbial Genomics Group, Laboratoire Ampère, Ecole Centrale de Lyon, Université de Lyon, Ecully, France
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23
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Space Flight Effects on Lichen Ultrastructure and Physiology. CELLULAR ORIGIN, LIFE IN EXTREME HABITATS AND ASTROBIOLOGY 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/978-90-481-9449-0_30] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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24
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Rabbow E, Horneck G, Rettberg P, Schott JU, Panitz C, L'Afflitto A, von Heise-Rotenburg R, Willnecker R, Baglioni P, Hatton J, Dettmann J, Demets R, Reitz G. EXPOSE, an astrobiological exposure facility on the international space station - from proposal to flight. ORIGINS LIFE EVOL B 2009; 39:581-98. [PMID: 19629743 DOI: 10.1007/s11084-009-9173-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2009] [Accepted: 07/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Following an European Space Agency announcement of opportunity in 1996 for "Externally mounted payloads for 1st utilization phase" on the International Space Station (ISS), scientists working in the fields of astrobiology proposed experiments aiming at longterm exposure of a variety of chemical compounds and extremely resistant microorganisms to the hostile space environment. The ESA exposure facility EXPOSE was built and an operations' concept was prepared. The EXPOSE experiments were developed through an intensive pre-flight experiment verification test program. 12 years later, two sets of astrobiological experiments in two EXPOSE facilities have been successfully launched to the ISS for external exposure for up to 1.5 years. EXPOSE-E, now installed at the balcony of the European Columbus module, was launched in February 2008, while EXPOSE-R took off to the ISS in November 2008 and was installed on the external URM-D platform of the Russian Zvezda module in March 2009.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elke Rabbow
- German Aerospace Center DLR, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Linder Hoehe, Koeln, Germany.
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25
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Olsson-Francis K, Cockell CS. Experimental methods for studying microbial survival in extraterrestrial environments. J Microbiol Methods 2009; 80:1-13. [PMID: 19854226 DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2009.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2009] [Revised: 10/05/2009] [Accepted: 10/07/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Microorganisms can be used as model systems for studying biological responses to extraterrestrial conditions; however, the methods for studying their response are extremely challenging. Since the first high altitude microbiological experiment in 1935 a large number of facilities have been developed for short- and long-term microbial exposure experiments. Examples are the BIOPAN facility, used for short-term exposure, and the EXPOSE facility aboard the International Space Station, used for long-term exposure. Furthermore, simulation facilities have been developed to conduct microbiological experiments in the laboratory environment. A large number of microorganisms have been used for exposure experiments; these include pure cultures and microbial communities. Analyses of these experiments have involved both culture-dependent and independent methods. This review highlights and discusses the facilities available for microbiology experiments, both in space and in simulation environments. A description of the microorganisms and the techniques used to analyse survival is included. Finally we discuss the implications of microbiological studies for future missions and for space applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Olsson-Francis
- Centre for Earth, Planetary, Space and Astronomical Research, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, UK.
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26
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Pearce DA, Bridge PD, Hughes KA, Sattler B, Psenner R, Russell NJ. Microorganisms in the atmosphere over Antarctica. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2009; 69:143-57. [PMID: 19527292 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6941.2009.00706.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Antarctic microbial biodiversity is the result of a balance between evolution, extinction and colonization, and so it is not possible to gain a full understanding of the microbial biodiversity of a location, its biogeography, stability or evolutionary relationships without some understanding of the input of new biodiversity from the aerial environment. In addition, it is important to know whether the microorganisms already present are transient or resident - this is particularly true for the Antarctic environment, as selective pressures for survival in the air are similar to those that make microorganisms suitable for Antarctic colonization. The source of potential airborne colonists is widespread, as they may originate from plant surfaces, animals, water surfaces or soils and even from bacteria replicating within the clouds. On a global scale, transport of air masses from the well-mixed boundary layer to high-altitude sites has frequently been observed, particularly in the warm season, and these air masses contain microorganisms. Indeed, it has become evident that much of the microbial life within remote environments is transported by air currents. In this review, we examine the behaviour of microorganisms in the Antarctic aerial environment and the extent to which these microorganisms might influence Antarctic microbial biodiversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Pearce
- British Antarctic Survey, Biological Sciences Division, Natural Environment Research Council, Cambridge, UK.
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27
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Baranov VM, Novikova ND, Polikarpov NA, Sychev VN, Levinskikh MA, Alekseev VR, Okuda T, Sugimoto M, Gusev OA, Grigor'ev AI. The Biorisk experiment: 13-month exposure of resting forms of organism on the outer side of the Russian Segment of the International Space Station: preliminary results. DOKLADY BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES : PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE USSR, BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTIONS 2009; 426:267-270. [PMID: 19650335 DOI: 10.1134/s0012496609030223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- V M Baranov
- Institute of Biomedical Problems, Russian Academy of Sciences, Khoroshevskoe sh. 76-a, Moscow, 123007 Russia
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28
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Yang Y, Yokobori SI, Yamagishi A. Assessing Panspermia Hypothesis by Microorganisms Collected from The High Altitude Atmosphere. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.2187/bss.23.151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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30
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Cockell CS. The interplanetary exchange of photosynthesis. ORIGINS LIFE EVOL B 2008; 38:87-104. [PMID: 17906941 DOI: 10.1007/s11084-007-9112-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2007] [Accepted: 09/02/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Panspermia, the transfer of organisms from one planet to another, either through interplanetary or interstellar space, remains speculation. However, its potential can be experimentally tested. Conceptually, it is island biogeography on an interplanetary or interstellar scale. Of special interest is the possibility of the transfer of oxygenic photosynthesis between one planet and another, as it can initiate large scale biospheric productivity. Photosynthetic organisms, which must live near the surface of rocks, can be shown experimentally to be subject to destruction during atmospheric transit. Many of them grow as vegetative cells, which are shown experimentally to be susceptible to destruction by shock during impact ejection, although the effectiveness of this dispersal filter can be shown to be mitigated by the characteristics of the cells and their local environment. Collectively these, and other, experiments reveal the particular barriers to the cross-inoculation of photosynthesis. If oxygen biosignatures are eventually found in the atmospheres of extrasolar planets, understanding the potential for the interplanetary exchange of photosynthesis will aid in their interpretation.
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32
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Sancho LG, de la Torre R, Horneck G, Ascaso C, de Los Rios A, Pintado A, Wierzchos J, Schuster M. Lichens survive in space: results from the 2005 LICHENS experiment. ASTROBIOLOGY 2007; 7:443-54. [PMID: 17630840 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2006.0046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
This experiment was aimed at establishing, for the first time, the survival capability of lichens exposed to space conditions. In particular, the damaging effect of various wavelengths of extraterrestrial solar UV radiation was studied. The lichens used were the bipolar species Rhizocarpon geographicum and Xanthoria elegans, which were collected above 2000 m in the mountains of central Spain and as endolithic communities inhabiting granites in the Antarctic Dry Valleys. Lichens were exposed to space in the BIOPAN-5 facility of the European Space Agency; BIOPAN-5 is located on the outer shell of the Earth-orbiting FOTON-M2 Russian satellite. The lichen samples were launched from Baikonur by a Soyuz rocket on May 31, 2005, and were returned to Earth after 16 days in space, at which time they were tested for survival. Chlorophyll fluorescence was used for the measurement of photosynthetic parameters. Scanning electron microscopy in back-scattered mode, low temperature scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy were used to study the organization and composition of both symbionts. Confocal laser scanning microscopy, in combination with the use of specific fluorescent probes, allowed for the assessment of the physiological state of the cells. All exposed lichens, regardless of the optical filters used, showed nearly the same photosynthetic activity after the flight as measured before the flight. Likewise, the multimicroscopy approach revealed no detectable ultrastructural changes in most of the algal and fungal cells of the lichen thalli, though a greater proportion of cells in the flight samples had compromised membranes, as revealed by the LIVE/DEAD BacLight Bacterial Viability Kit. These findings indicate that most lichenized fungal and algal cells can survive in space after full exposure to massive UV and cosmic radiation, conditions proven to be lethal to bacteria and other microorganisms. The lichen upper cortex seems to provide adequate protection against solar radiation. Moreover, after extreme dehydration induced by high vacuum, the lichens proved to be able to recover, in full, their metabolic activity within 24 hours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leopoldo G Sancho
- Departamento de Biología Vegetal II, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain.
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Fajardo-Cavazos P, Link L, Melosh HJ, Nicholson WL. Bacillus subtilis spores on artificial meteorites survive hypervelocity atmospheric entry: implications for Lithopanspermia. ASTROBIOLOGY 2005; 5:726-36. [PMID: 16379527 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2005.5.726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
An important but untested aspect of the lithopanspermia hypothesis is that microbes situated on or within meteorites could survive hypervelocity entry from space through Earth's atmosphere. The use of high-altitude sounding rockets to test this notion was explored. Granite samples permeated with spores of Bacillus subtilis strain WN511 were attached to the exterior telemetry module of a sounding rocket and launched from White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico into space, reaching maximum atmospheric entry velocity of 1.2 km/s. Maximum recorded temperature during the flight was measured at 145 degrees C. The surfaces of the post-flight granite samples were swabbed and tested for recovery and survival of WN511 spores, using genetic markers and the unique DNA fingerprint of WN511 as recovery criteria. Spore survivors were isolated at high frequency, ranging from 1.2% to 4.4% compared with ground controls, from all surfaces except the forward-facing surface. Sporulation-defective mutants were noted among the spaceflight survivors at high frequency (4%). These experiments constitute the first report of spore survival to hypervelocity atmospheric transit, and indicate that sounding rocket flights can be used to model the high-speed atmospheric entry of bacteria-laden artificial meteorites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Fajardo-Cavazos
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Science, University of Florida, Space Life Sciences Laboratory, Kennedy Space Center, FL 32899, USA
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Takahashi A, Ohnishi T. The significance of the study about the biological effects of solar ultraviolet radiation using the Exposed Facility on the International Space Station. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 18:255-60. [PMID: 15858393 DOI: 10.2187/bss.18.255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
It is believed that ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun participated in events related to the chemical evolution and birth of life on the primitive Earth. Although UV radiation would be also a driving force for the biological evolution of life on Earth, life space of the primitive living organisms would be limited in the UV-shielded place such as in the water at an early stage of the evolution of life. After the formation of stratospheric ozone layer through the production of oxygen by photoautotroph, living organisms were able to expand their domain from water to land. As a result, now, many kinds of living organisms containing human beings are flourishing on the ground. In the near future, increased transmission of harmful solar UV radiation may reach the Earth's surface due to stratospheric ozone layer depletion. In order to learn more about the biological effects of solar UV radiation with or without interruption by the ozone layer, the utilization of an Exposed Facility on the International Space Station is required. Experiments proposed for this facility would provide a tool for the scientific investigation of processes involved in the birth and evolution of life on Earth, and could also demonstrate the importance of protecting the Earth's future environment from future ozone layer depletion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akihisa Takahashi
- Department of Biology, Nara Medical University School of Medicine, Kashihara, Nara, Japan
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Rettberg P, Rabbow E, Panitz C, Horneck G. Biological space experiments for the simulation of Martian conditions: UV radiation and Martian soil analogues. ADVANCES IN SPACE RESEARCH : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE COMMITTEE ON SPACE RESEARCH (COSPAR) 2004; 33:1294-1301. [PMID: 15803617 DOI: 10.1016/j.asr.2003.09.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The survivability of resistant terrestrial microbes, bacterial spores of Bacillus subtilis, was investigated in the BIOPAN facility of the European Space Agency onboard of Russian Earth-orbiting FOTON satellites (BIOPAN I -III missions). The spores were exposed to different subsets of the extreme environmental parameters in space (vacuum, extraterrestrial solar UV, shielding by protecting materials like artificial meteorites). The results of the three space experiments confirmed the deleterious effects of extraterrestrial solar UV radiation which, in contrast to the UV radiation reaching the surface of the Earth, also contains the very energy-rich, short wavelength UVB and UVC radiation. Thin layers of clay, rock or meteorite material were shown to be only successful in UV-shielding, if they are in direct contact with the spores. On Mars the UV radiation climate is similar to that of the early Earth before the development of a protective ozone layer in the atmosphere by the appearance of the first aerobic photosynthetic bacteria. The interference of Martian soil components and the intense and nearly unfiltered Martian solar UV radiation with spores of B. subtilis will be tested with a new BIOPAN experiment, MARSTOX. Different types of Mars soil analogues will be used to determine on one hand their potential toxicity alone or in combination with solar UV (phototoxicity) and on the other hand their UV protection capability. Two sets of samples will be placed under different cut-off filters used to simulate the UV radiation climate of Mars and Earth. After exposure in space the survival of and mutation induction in the spores will be analyzed at the DLR, together with parallel samples from the corresponding ground control experiment performed in the laboratory. This experiment will provide new insights into the principal limits of life and its adaptation to environmental extremes on Earth or other planets which and will also have implications for the potential for the evolution and distribution of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Rettberg
- DLR, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology Section, Linder Hohe, Köln, Germany.
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