Assessment of cancer risk from ethylene oxide residues in spices imported into New Zealand

Influence of the Drying Process on the Volatile Profile of Different Capsicum Species

Chili is a globally significant spice used fresh or dried for culinary, condiment, and medicinal purposes. Growing concerns about food safety have increased the demand for high-quality products and non-invasive tools for quality control like origin tracing and safety assurance. Volatile analysis offers a rapid, comprehensive, and safe method for characterizing various food products. Thus, this study aims to assess the impact of the drying process on the aromatic composition of various Capsicum species and to identify key compounds driving the aromatic complexity of each genetic makeup. To accomplish these objectives, the aroma was examined in fruits collected from 19 different pepper accessions (Capsicum sp.) belonging to four species: one ancestral (C. chacoense) and three domesticated pepper species (C. annuum, C. baccatum and C. chinense). Fresh and dried samples were analyzed using a headspace PTR-TOF-MS platform. Our findings reveal significant changes in the composition and concentration of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from fresh to dried Capsicum. Notably, chili peppers of the species C. chinense consistently exhibited higher emission intensity and a more complex aroma compared to other species (both fresh and dried). Overall, the data clearly demonstrate that the drying process generally leads to a reduction in the intensity and complexity of the aromatic compounds emitted. Specifically, fresh peppers showed higher volatile organic compounds content compared to dried ones, except for the two sweet peppers studied, which exhibited the opposite behavior. Our analysis underscores the variability in the effect of drying on volatile compound composition among different pepper species and even among different cultivars, highlighting key compounds that could facilitate species classification in dried powder. This research serves as a preliminary guide for promoting the utilization of various pepper species and cultivars as powder, enhancing product valorization.

Effect of pin-to-plate atmospheric cold plasma (ACP) on microbial load and physicochemical properties in cinnamon, black pepper, and fennel

The current study aimed to investigate the influence of pin-to-plate atmospheric cold plasma treatment (ACP) on the microbial decontamination efficacy, physical (water activity, color, texture), and bioactive (total phenolic and anti-oxidant capacity, volatile oil profile) of three major spices cinnamon, black pepper, and fennel at three different voltages (170, 200, 230 V) and exposure time (5, 10, 15 min). The surface etching and oxidative reactions of cold plasma is anticipated to cause microbial decontamination of the spices. In accordance with this, the ACP treatment significantly reduced the yeast and mold count of cinnamon, black pepper, and fennel, resulting in 1.3 Log CFU/g, 1.1 Log CFU/g, and 1.0 Log CFU/g, respectively even at the lowest treatment at 170 V-5 min. While at the highest treatment of 230 V-15 min, complete decontamination in all the samples was observed due to the plasma-induced microbial cell disruption. The water activity of samples reduced post-treatment 0.69 ± 0.02 to 0.51 ± 0.03 for cinnamon, 0.61 ± 0.03 to 0.49 ± 0.01 for pepper, and 0.60 ± 0.02 to 0.43 ± 0.02 for fennel which further reassures better microbial stability. The color and textural properties were significantly unaffected (p > 0.05) preserving the fresh-like attributes. The total phenolic content was increased for cinnamon (2.26 %), black pepper (0.11 %), and fennel (0.33 %) after plasma treatment at 230 V-15 min due to the cold plasma surface etching phenomenon. However, the essential oil composition revealed no significant variation in all three spices' control and treated samples. Thus, the study proves the potential of the atmospheric pressure cold plasma for the complete decontamination of the investigated spices (cinnamon, pepper, fennel) without remarkable changes in the volatile oil profile.

Comparative evaluation of ethylene oxide, electron beam and gamma irradiation treatments on commonly cultivated red chilli cultivars (Kunri and Hybrid) of Sindh, Pakistan

Chillies are considered a universal ingredient for imparting flavor and pungency to foods. Pakistan stood in the top twenty countries worldwide by producing 82 thousand Tons of chillies during 2022-23. Chilli fungal contamination and aflatoxin production during drying is a common problem during post-harvest process. Gasses treatment and Ionizing radiations are efficient methods for reducing toxigenic and pathogenic microbial growth in food items. The current study was designed to compare the effects of ethylene oxide (ETO), gamma (GB) & electron beam (EB) treatments on two red chilli local cultivars (Kunri and Hybrid) of Pakistan. After treatment, the chilli samples were analyzed for aflatoxins, physicochemical, quality & safety attributes. All results were subjected to Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA), dendrogram and ANOVA to check the correlations, grouping and level of significance within the varieties and treatments. The results showed that moisture and water activity mainly designated PC-2 directions and are slightly positively correlated. Conversely, both fat and proteins have a negative correlation with moisture, ash and water activity. Besides, carotenoids and ABTS assay mainly designated PC-2 directions and are slightly positively correlated. Color, flavonoids and TPC also possess positive correlations among them. ETO depicts effectiveness in the reduction of E. coli but is not effective in saving antioxidant potential such as total flavonoids. Similarly, gamma irradiations showed strong reduction trends in fungal and pathogenic count, however same trend was observed in ascorbic acid too. Besides, the electron beam with dosage levels of 12 and 15 kGy has shown effectiveness against Aspergillus spp., aflatoxins and pathogenic microbial load in addition to saving antioxidant potential (phenolics and flavonoids), physicochemical parameters and color values compared to other applied methods especially in Kunri variety. It was evident from the research that varietal combination in addition to applied treatment must be specially considered while designing a treatment for chillies.

Validation of γ-radiation and their effect on phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity, and microbial load of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) seeds and cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) sticks

The aim of this study was to validate the optimum doses of γ-radiation and its effect on the antioxidant capacity and microbial load of fennel seeds and cinnamon sticks. Gamma irradiation was applied in different doses 0.0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, 10, and 15 kGy. The findings stated that increasing gamma dose significantly (p < .05) increased the total phenolic content of the fennel seeds; however, it was decreased in cinnamon at doses higher than 5 kGy. The total flavonoid content was found higher after treatments at 5 kGy or more minor. After the gamma irradiation treatments, the antioxidant activities were enhanced. The microbial load of these spices was reduced after treatment. Doses more than 10.0 kGy are required to lower the bacterial load in samples, while only 5.0 kGy is sufficient to eliminate fungi growth. The partial least squares regression analysis stated the application of 7.5 kGy and reflects the most valid treatment doses for radiation treatments of fennel seeds and cinnamon sticks. Accordingly, it can be discovered that the γ-radiation at a dose of 7.5 kGy could be considered a suitable dose for the preservation and decontamination of these spices and also for enhancing its antioxidant capacity. Three spices were subjected to gamma irradiation at different doses. The application of gamma radiation significantly reduces the level of the microbial load in the spices. Gamma irradiation improved the antioxidant capacity of the spices. Gamma irradiation can be applied as an effective preservative method in the food industries.

Food-Borne Chemical Carcinogens and the Evidence for Human Cancer Risk

Commonly consumed foods and beverages can contain chemicals with reported carcinogenic activity in rodent models. Moreover, exposures to some of these substances have been associated with increased cancer risks in humans. Food-borne carcinogens span a range of chemical classes and can arise from natural or anthropogenic sources, as well as form endogenously. Important considerations include the mechanism(s) of action (MoA), their relevance to human biology, and the level of exposure in diet. The MoAs of carcinogens have been classified as either DNA-reactive (genotoxic), involving covalent reaction with nuclear DNA, or epigenetic, involving molecular and cellular effects other than DNA reactivity. Carcinogens are generally present in food at low levels, resulting in low daily intakes, although there are some exceptions. Carcinogens of the DNA-reactive type produce effects at lower dosages than epigenetic carcinogens. Several food-related DNA-reactive carcinogens, including aflatoxins, aristolochic acid, benzene, benzo[a]pyrene and ethylene oxide, are recognized by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as causes of human cancer. Of the epigenetic type, the only carcinogen considered to be associated with increased cancer in humans, although not from low-level food exposure, is dioxin (TCDD). Thus, DNA-reactive carcinogens in food represent a much greater risk than epigenetic carcinogens.

Advancing the Sustainable Use of Ethylene Oxide through Process Validation

Based on excellent material compatibility and ability for scale, ethylene oxide (EO) sterilization constitutes approximately 50% of single-use medical device sterilization globally. Epidemiological considerations have elevated focus toward optimization of EO processes, whereby only necessary amounts of sterilant are used in routine processing. EO sterilization of medical devices is validated in accordance with AAMI/ANSI/ISO 11135:2014 via a manner in which a sterility assurance level (SAL) of 10-6 is typically achieved, with multiple layers of conservativeness delivered, using "overkill" approaches to validation. Various optimization strategies are being used throughout the medical device industry to deliver the required SAL while utilizing only necessary amounts of sterilant. This article presents relevant experiences and describes challenges and considerations encountered in delivering EO process optimization. Thus far, the results observed by the authors are encouraging in demonstrating how EO processing can be optimized in the delivery of critical single-use medical devices for patient care.

Effects of yellow and red bell pepper (paprika) extracts on pathogenic microorganisms, cancerous cells and inhibition of survivin

The present work examined the biomedical value of red and yellow bell pepper extracts (YME and RME) in terms of antioxidant, antibacterial and anticancer activities by in vitro and virtual studies. The yield of extract was 3.49% for RME and 2.92% for YME. The level of total phenols and total flavonoids significantly varied between the type of extracts, and it was higher in RME than that in YME. The extracts showed promising DPPH and ABTS free radical scavenging rates. The extracts showed an excellent antibacterial activity. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of RME was 0.20 mg mL^-1 for Bacillus cereus, 0.30 mg mL^-1 for Escherichia coli, 0.50 mg mL^-1 for Staphylococcus aureus and 0.60 mg mL^-1 and for Pseudomonas aeruginosa, while the MIC of YME was 0.40 mg mL^-1 for B. cereus, 0.40 mg mL^-1 for E. coli, 0.50 mg mL^-1 for S. aureus, and 0.60 mg mL^-1 for P. aeruginosa. TEM results demonstrated the cellular damage induced by RME in B. cereus biofilm. The RME did not show any cytotoxicity in normal NIH3T3 cells, but at 125 μg mL^-1 did a strong cytotoxicity in human lung cancer cell line A549 as evident by cytotoxicity assay, ROS and AO/EB staining. The virtual biological examination indicated that β-carotene from RME was a potential compound with higher docking energy against both targeted enzymes and proteins as - 14.30 for LpxC and - 15.59 for survivin. Therefore, it is recommended that RME is a better functional food with novel biomedical properties and it deserves further evaluation for its the novel molecules against multidrug resistant pathogens.

Applications of nonthermal plasma technology on safety and quality of dried food ingredients

Cold plasma technology is an efficient, environmental-friendly, economic and noninvasive technology; and in recent years these advantages placed this novel technology at the centre of diverse studies for food industry applications. Dried food ingredients including spices, herbs, powders and seeds are an important part of the human diet; and the growing demands of consumers for higher quality and safe food products have led to increased research into alternative decontamination methods. Numerous studies have investigated the effect of nonthermal plasma on dried food ingredients for food safety and quality purposes. This review provides critical review on potential of cold plasma for disinfection of dried food surfaces (spices, herbs and seeds), improvement of functional and rheological properties of dried ingredients (powders, proteins and starches). The review further highlights the benefits of plasma treatment for enhancement of seeds performance and germination yield which could be applied in agricultural sector in near future. Different studies applying plasma technology for control of pathogens and spoilage micro-organisms and modification of food quality and germination of dried food products followed by benefits and current challenges are presented. However, more systemic research needs to be addressed for successful adoption of this technology in food industry.

Effect of airborne ultrasonic technology on microbial inactivation and quality of dried food ingredients

Conventional methods for decontamination of dried foods have various limitations including undesired effects on both food quality and nutritional parameters. Airborne acoustic technology is a potential technology for microbial inactivation which has limited impacts on food quality. The objective of this study was to investigate the potential of airborne acoustic technology for the decontamination of black pepper grains (Piper nigrum L.) and tapioca starch (Manihot esculenta) inoculated with Bacillus subtilis vegetative cells and spores. Black pepper and tapioca starch samples were subjected to airborne acoustic waves at 170 W for treatment times of 0 (control) to 120 min at room temperature. Significant reductions of 2.19 log CFU/g and 2.01 log CFU/g were achieved after 30 min of treatment for black pepper and tapioca starch respectively (p < 0.05). No significant reductions were observed in spore contaminated samples (p > 0.05). Total phenolic content of black pepper and rheological properties of tapioca starch were not significantly influenced by airborne acoustic treatment at treatment times required to achieve 2 log reductions (p > 0.05). This study demonstrated that airborne acoustic technology can be employed for microbial inactivation of dried food ingredients with minimal impacts on food quality.

Dose rates of electron beam and gamma ray irradiation affect microbial decontamination and quality changes in dried red pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) powder

BACKGROUND

Due to differences in radiation sources (electron beam from electron accelerator, gamma ray from ⁶⁰ Co radionuclide) and energy delivery time (dose rate, kGy/time), the effects on foods are expected to be different with regard to chemical quality change and microbial decontamination. To better understand this impact, effects of variable dose rates of electron beam (EB, kGy s^-1 ) and gamma rays (GR, kGy h^-1 ) on microbial reduction, capsanthin content, and color parameters of red pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) powders (RPP) were determined. RPP samples were irradiated with 3 kGy absorbed dose, at variable dose rates of 1 and 5 kGy s^-1 of EB (10 MeV/10 kW), and 1.8 and 9 kGy h^-1 of GR (⁶⁰ Co).

RESULTS

Aerobic plate counts (APC) as well as yeast and mold counts of non-irradiated samples were 7.12 log CFU g^-1 and 6.62 log CFU g^-1 , respectively. EB and GR reduced these by 2-3 log CFU g^-1 . A lower dose rate (1 kGy s^-1 ) of EB was more effective for microbial reduction than a higher dose rate (5 kGy s^-1 ). In contrast, a higher dose rate (9 kGy h^-1 ) of GR efficiently decreased APC compared to a lower dose rate (1.8 kGy h^-1 ). Higher EB and GR dose rates significantly decreased the capsanthin content and Hunter's red color (a* value).

CONCLUSION

Low EB (kGy s^-1 ) and high GR (kGy h^-1 ) dose rates are recommended for microbiological safety of RPP with negligible changes in color attributes visible to the human eye, in contrast to the measured values. Thus the study demonstrates that the influence of absorbed dose is dependent on the applied dose rates. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Public health risk associated with the co-occurrence of mycotoxins in spices consumed in Sri Lanka

A quantitative risk assessment of mycotoxins due to the consumption of chilli (Capsicum annum L.) and black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) was performed in Sri Lanka. A food frequency questionnaire was administered in order to collect the data on consumption of spices by households in the Northern and Southern region (n = 249). The mean chilli consumption in the North was significantly higher (p < 0.001) compared to the South. Mean exposure to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in the North (3.49 ng/kg BW/day) and South (2.13 ng/kg BW/day) have exceeded the tolerable daily intake due to chilli consumption at the lower bound scenario, while exposure to OTA was small. Dietary exposure to other mycotoxins, fumonisin B1, fumonisin B2, sterigmatocystin and citrinin due to spices were estimated. Margin of exposure estimations at the mean exposure to AFB1 were remarkably lower due to chilli (45-78) than for pepper (2315–10,857). Moreover, the hepato cellular carcinoma (HCC) risk associated with the mean AFB1 exposure through chilli at the lower bound was 0.046 and 0.028 HCC cases/year/100,000 based on the North and South consumption, respectively. AFB1 exposure via chilli should be considered as a great public health concern in Sri Lanka due to both high mycotoxin concentration and high consumption.

Microbial decontamination of red pepper powder by cold plasma

Effects of the microwave-powered cold plasma treatments (CPTs) on the inhibition of microorganisms in red pepper powder, including Aspergillus flavus and Bacillus cereus spores, were investigated. Combinations of heat treatment with CPT were investigated for the inhibition of B. cereus spores on the powder. The number of A. flavus was reduced by 2.5 ± 0.3 log spores/g by the CPT with nitrogen at 900 W and 667 Pa for 20 min. CPT at 900 W and 667 Pa for 20 min inhibited naturally occurring total aerobic bacteria in the red pepper powder by approximately 1 log CFU/g. B. cereus spores were inhibited (3.4 ± 0.7 log spores/g reduction) only when heat treatment at 90 °C for 30 min was integrated with the CPT using a helium-oxygen gas mixture at 900 W. Fermi's model and Weibull model adequately described the inhibition of A. flavus on the red pepper powder by the CPT. The changes in treatment temperature and water activity were less than 5.0 °C (initial temperature: 23.8 °C) and 0.22, respectively, and were affected by both treatment power and time (P < 0.05). The CPTs have demonstrated the potential to reduce the microbial counts of red pepper powder and other powder products.

Simultaneous near-infrared radiant heating and UV radiation for inactivating Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium in powdered red pepper (Capsicum annuum L.)

This study was conducted to investigate the efficacy of the simultaneous application of near-infrared (NIR) heating and UV irradiation for reducing populations of food-borne pathogens, including Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and Escherichia coli O157:H7 in red pepper powder and to clarify the mechanisms of the lethal effect of the NIR-UV combined treatment. Also, the effect of the combination treatment on quality was determined by measuring changes in color and pungency constituents. Simultaneous NIR-UV combined treatment for 5 min achieved 3.34- and 2.78-log CFU reductions in S. Typhimurium and E. coli O157:H7, respectively, which involved 1.86- and 1.31-log CFU reductions, respectively, which were attributed to the synergistic effect. Through qualitative and quantitative analyses, damage to the cell envelope was identified as the main factor contributing to the synergistic lethal effect of NIR-UV combined treatment. Color values and capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin content of NIR-UV simultaneously treated red pepper powder were not significantly (P > 0.05) different from those of untreated samples. These results suggest that simultaneous application of NIR and UV treatment can be effectively used to control food-borne pathogens in powdered red pepper without affecting quality.

Heavy metals in spices and herbs from wholesale markets in Malaysia

As, Cd, Pb and Hg were analysed in commonly consumed spices and herbs in Malaysia. The range of As, Cd, Pb and Hg content was 0.24-2.54, 0.23-8.07, 1.54-8.94 and 0.06-0.52 µg g(-1), respectively. The highest concentration of Cd, Pb and Hg in spices and herbs exceeded the maximum permitted proportion, which are 1, 2 and 0.05 µg g(-1), respectively. This study suggests further monitoring of Cd, Pb and Hg on daily consumption of spices and herbs and its toxicological implication for consumers since only the amount of As was lower than the permitted concentration.

Physicochemical and microbiological qualities of steamed and irradiated ground black pepper (Piper nigrum L.)

The effects of steam and irradiation treatments on the physicochemical properties (moisture content, pH, extractable yield, reducing sugar, soluble pigment, antioxidant activity, piperine, Hunter's color, and sensory attributes) and microbiological quality (total aerobic bacteria, coliforms, and yeasts and molds) of ground black pepper stored at refrigerated and room temperatures for 6 months were compared and evaluated. Irradiation resulted in a higher microbial reduction in pepper, with minimal effects on the proximate composition, functional components, color, and sensory attributes of the spice. Steamed peppers appeared darker, and a considerable decrease in the piperine content was observed after treatment and storage. This study illustrates that irradiation is a better decontamination method than steam treatment in eliminating microorganisms without apparently affecting the quality of the powdered spice. Storage at 4 degrees C enhanced the microbial quality and minimized the loss of piperine content in ground black peppers.

Emission of ethylene oxide during frying of foods in soybean oil

High levels of ethylene oxide (EO) and acetaldehyde (AE) were detected, using gas chromatography and a portable gas detector, among volatile organic compounds (VOC) emitted during simulated frying of herbs and spices in soybean oil at temperatures between 120 degrees C and 200 degrees C. Both EO and AE were distributed between the gas phase and oil phase after cooking each vegetable at 150 degrees C for 5min under either nitrogen or air at 1atm. EO concentrations in the gas phase (25-75ppm) exceeded the threshold limit value of 1ppm, the TLV TWA value established by the American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists and permitted by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. EO has been identified as a significant carcinogen. Thus, while no causal relationship can be concluded from this study, the results suggest a possible relationship between the high levels of EO emitted during frying and the high incidence of lung cancer among Taiwanese women engaged in traditional cooking.

Health benefits of herbs and spices: the past, the present, the future

Herbs and spices have a traditional history of use, with strong roles in cultural heritage, and in the appreciation of food and its links to health. Demonstrating the benefits of foods by scientific means remains a challenge, particularly when compared with standards applied for assessing pharmaceutical agents. Pharmaceuticals are small-molecular-weight compounds consumed in a purified and concentrated form. Food is eaten in combinations, in relatively large, unmeasured quantities under highly socialised conditions. The real challenge lies not in proving whether foods, such as herbs and spices, have health benefits, but in defining what these benefits are and developing the methods to expose them by scientific means.

CULTURAL ASPECTS

The place of herbs and spices in the diet needs to be considered in reviewing health benefits. This includes definitions of the food category and the way in which benefits might be viewed, and therefore researched. Research may focus on identifying bioactive substances in herbs and spices, or on their properties as a whole food, and/or be set in the context of a dietary cuisine.

THE ROLE OF HERBS AND SPICES IN HEALTH

The antioxidant properties of herbs and spices are of particular interest in view of the impact of oxidative modification of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in the development of atherosclerosis. There is level III-3 evidence (National Health and Medical Research Council [NHMRC] levels of evidence) that consuming a half to one clove of garlic (or equivalent) daily may have a cholesterol-lowering effect of up to 9%. There is level III-1 evidence that 7.2 g of aged garlic extract has been associated with anticlotting (in-vivo studies), as well as modest reductions in blood pressure (an approximate 5.5% decrease in systolic blood pressure). A range of bioactive compounds in herbs and spices have been studied for anticarcinogenic properties in animals, but the challenge lies in integrating this knowledge to ascertain whether any effects can be observed in humans, and within defined cuisines. Research on the effects of herbs and spices on mental health should distinguish between cognitive decline associated with ageing and the acute effects of psychological and cognitive function. There is level I and II evidence for the effect of some herbal supplements on psychological and cognitive function. There is very limited scientific evidence for the effects of herbs and spices on type 2 diabetes mellitus, with the best evidence being available for the effect of ginseng on glycaemia, albeit based on four studies. More research is required, particularly examining the effects of chronic consumption patterns. With increasing interest in alternatives to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents in the management of chronic inflammation, research is emerging on the use of food extracts. There is level II evidence for the use of ginger in ameliorating arthritic knee pain; however, the improvement is modest and the efficacy of ginger treatment is ranked below that of ibuprofen. More definitive research is required.

PUBLIC HEALTH AND DIETARY IMPLICATIONS

Recommendations for intakes of food in the Australian guide to healthy eating do not yet include suggested intakes of herbs and spices. Future consideration should be given to including more explicit recommendations about their place in a healthy diet. In addition to delivering antioxidant and other properties, herbs and spices can be used in recipes to partially or wholly replace less desirable ingredients such as salt, sugar and added saturated fat in, for example, marinades and dressings, stir-fry dishes, casseroles, soups, curries and Mediterranean-style cooking. Vegetable dishes and vegetarian options may be more appetising when prepared with herbs and spices.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

As several metabolic diseases and age-related degenerative disorders are closely associated with oxidative processes in the body, the use of herbs and spices as a source of antioxidants to combat oxidation warrants further attention. Immediate studies should focus on validating the antioxidant capacity of herbs and spices after harvest, as well as testing their effects on markers of oxidation. This will work in parallel with clinical trials that are aiming to establish antioxidants as mediators of disease prevention. From a dietary perspective, the functionality of herbs and spices will be exposed through consideration of their properties as foods. As with most foods, the real benefits of including them in the diet are likely to emerge with a better understanding of the attributes of health that are best supported by food, and in methodological developments addressing the evidence base for their effects. These developments are well underway through evidence-based frameworks for substantiating health claims related to foods. At present, recommendations are warranted to support the consumption of foods rich in bioactive components, such as herbs and spices. With time, we can expect to see a greater body of scientific evidence supporting the benefits of herbs and spices in the overall maintenance of health and protection from disease.

Spicing up a vegetarian diet: chemopreventive effects of phytochemicals

Thousands of chemical structures have been identified in plant foods. Many are found in spices. Typically, spices are the dried aromatic parts of plants-generally the seeds, berries, roots, pods, and sometimes leaves-that mainly, but not invariably, grow in hot countries. Given the wide range of botanical species and plant parts from which spices are derived, they can contribute significant variety and complexity to the human diet. In the past, the medicinal uses of spices and herbs were often indistinguishable from their culinary uses, and for good reason: people have recognized for centuries both the inherent value, as well as the potential toxicity, of phytochemicals in relation to human health. Plants have the capacity to synthesize a diverse array of chemicals, and understanding how phytochemicals function in plants may further our understanding of the mechanisms by which they benefit humans. In plants, these compounds function to attract beneficial and repel harmful organisms, serve as photoprotectants, and respond to environmental changes. In humans, they can have complementary and overlapping actions, including antioxidant effects, modulation of detoxification enzymes, stimulation of the immune system, reduction of inflammation, modulation of steroid metabolism, and antibacterial and antiviral effects. Embracing a cuisine rich in spice, as well as in fruit and vegetables, may further enhance the chemopreventive capacity of one's diet.