The effects of feed restriction and lying deprivation on pituitary–adrenal axis regulation in lactating cows

Exploring herd-level perinatal calf mortality risk factors in eastern Canadian dairy farms

This closed cohort study aimed to identify the associations between dairy calf management practices and herd-level perinatal calf mortality risk. From February 2020 to June 2021, predominantly Holstein dairy farms in Québec (n = 1,832) and New Brunswick (n = 52), Canada, that were registered in the dairy herd improvement program were visited once. A questionnaire covering all aspects of precalving, calving, and colostrum management was administered. Data regarding perinatal mortality were retrieved from the dairy herd improvement program database for each farm for 2021. Perinatal mortality was calculated for each farm as the proportion of calves dead at birth or dying within 24 h after birth. A multivariable negative binomial model was used to assess herd-level factors associated with the risk of perinatal mortality. The final model included the lying surface in the calving area, the typical time to first colostrum intake, typical cow-calf contact time, the proportion of males born, the proportion of assisted calvings, and herd size. Herd-level perinatal mortality risk ranged from 0% to 38.1% (mean ± SE = 7.6% ± 0.1%). A greater proportion of males born, a higher proportion of assisted calvings, and delayed colostrum feeding were associated with increased herd-level perinatal mortality. Factors associated with a decreased herd-level perinatal mortality risk were having a typical cow-calf contact time between 7 and 12 h after calving compared with reduced cow-calf contact time, soft lying surfaces in the calving area compared with concrete and mat-lying surfaces, and an increased number of calvings per year. Our results show that although some of the significant risk factors are not well understood (i.e., calving area lying surface, typical cow-calf contact time), Canadian farmers could focus on the factors under their control (i.e., time to first colostrum feeding, proportion of difficult calvings, males born, and calvings per year) to reduce the risk of perinatal mortality. Future work should focus on qualitative research to understand the dairy farmer motivations and limitations to implementing practices identified in this and other studies to reduce perinatal mortality.

A short-term comparison of wheat straw and poplar wood chips used as litter in tiestalls on hygiene, milk, and behavior of lactating dairy cows

A short-term study was conducted to compare the effect of using poplar wood chips (PWC) instead of wheat straw (WS) litter in dairy cows. A total of 38 lactating Holstein cows (204 ± 119 days in milk, 26.9 ± 6.5 kg of milk yield [MY]) were housed in a tiestall farm for a 10-d trial including 5 d of adaptation followed by 5 sampling days (from d 5 to 10). Cows were divided into 2 homogeneous groups: one group was bedded with WS, and the second with PWC. Both litter materials were provided in the amount of 7 kg/stall per d. Each group was composed of 3 subgroups of 6 or 7 cows; the subgroups were physically separated along the feeding line by wooden boards. During the sampling days, fecal composition, used litter composition, and bacterial count (Clostridium spp., Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, Lactobacillus, and total bacterial count) were analyzed by subgroup twice a day. On d 1 and from d 5 to 10, udder hygiene score and cow cleanliness score were also evaluated individually twice a day. Meanwhile MY, milk hygiene (total bacterial count [TBC], coliform bacterial count [CBC], and spore-forming units [SFU]) and quality were measured and analyzed from 9 animals per group. Moreover, individual animal behavior (body position and behavioral traits) and subgroup dry matter intake were measured on d 9 and 10. Fecal dry matter did not differ between groups, PWC had the lowest used litter moisture and N content favoring the highest clean cow frequency, but also gave rise to the greatest used litter microbial contamination. The MY, milk quality, TBC, SFU, and CBC were similar. The lying behavior frequency was similar between groups. However, the PWC group showed the lowest sleeping frequency, the highest frequency of other behaviors (including discomfort signs), and the lowest dry matter intake. However, despite this apparent reduction in cow comfort, no biologically important differences were observed in this short-term study between cows on PWC and WS in milk production or hygiene.

Evaluation of Holstein cows with different tongue-rolling frequencies: stress immunity, rumen environment and general behavioural activity

BACKGROUND

The tongue-rolling behaviour of cows is regarded as an outward sign of stressed animals in a low welfare status. The primary aim of this observational study was to evaluate the association between the frequency of tongue-rolling behaviour and its physiological function. The secondary aim was to explore the relationship between general activities and the frequency of tongue-rolling behaviour of cows. A total of 126 scan sampling behavioural observations were collected over 7 d on 348 Holstein cows with the same lactation stage in the same barn. The tongue-rolling frequency was defined as the number of tongue-rolling observations as a percentage to the total observations per individual cow. According to their tongue-rolling frequency, the cows were grouped into the CON (no tongue-rolling), LT (frequency 1%), MT (frequency 5%), and HT (frequency 10%) groups. Six cows from each group were randomly selected for sampling. Serum samples, rumen fluid, milk yield, and background information were collected. The general behaviour data during 72 continuous hours of dairy cows, including eating time, rumination time, food time (eating time + rumination time), and lying time, were recorded by the collar sensor.

RESULTS

Cortisol (P = 0.012), γ-hydroxybutyric acid (P = 0.008), epinephrine (P = 0.030), and dopamine (P = 0.047) levels were significantly higher in tongue-rolling groups than in the CON group. Cortisol levels and tongue-rolling frequency had a moderate positive correlation (linearly r = 0.363). With the increase in tongue-rolling frequency, the rumen pH decreased first and then increased (P = 0.013), comparing to the CON group. HT cows had significantly less food time than CON cows (P = 0.035). The frequency of tongue-rolling had a moderate negative relationship with rumination time (r = -0.384) and food time (r = -0.492).

CONCLUSIONS

The tongue-rolling behaviour is considered as a passive coping mechanism, as the stress response in cows with high tongue-rolling frequency increased. Food intake and rumination activities were all closely related to the occurrence of tongue-rolling behaviour.

Comparison between the Behavior of Low-Yield Holstein-Friesian and Brown Swiss Cows under Barn and Pasture Feeding Conditions

Cow pasturing poses many logistical and nutritional problems. Animals have more difficulty accessing pasture feed and require more time to consume the equivalent amount of dry matter compared to total mixed ration (TMR) feed from a feed table. The study was conducted during August 2016-October 2017 on 64 Holstein-Friesian (HF) cows and 54 Brown Swiss (BS) cows. All animals were equipped with CowManager sensor devices, and the cows' behaviors were recorded: time spent on feed intake, rumination, physical activity, and rest. In winter, cows were mainly fed hay, while in summer, they took forage from the pasture or freshly cut forage provided in the barn. The study showed that the time of day had a significant (p < 0.001) effect on the cows' feeding behaviors. The study also showed behavioral differences between HF and BS breeds. HF cows, regardless of the location and type of feed provided, spent more time on feed intake and chewed less compared to the BS breed. These differences were observable in all studied lactation groups. Animals were most willing to take forage two hours before sunrise and two hours before sunset and showed an increased willingness to take feed immediately after leaving the milking parlor.

Selenium suppressed the LPS-induced inflammation of bovine endometrial epithelial cells through NF-κB and MAPK pathways under high cortisol background

The bovine uterus is susceptible to infection, and the elevated cortisol level due to stress are common in cows after delivery. The essential trace element selenium plays a pivotal role in the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory defence system of body. This study investigated whether selenium supplementation protected endometrial cells from inflammation in the presence of high-level cortisol. The primary bovine endometrial epithelial cells were subjected to Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide to establish cellular inflammation model. The gene expression of inflammatory mediators and proinflammatory cytokines was measured by quantitative PCR. The key proteins of NF-κB and MAPK signalling pathways were detected by Western blot and immunofluorescence. The result showed that pre-treatment of Na2 SeO3 (1, 2 and 4 μΜ) decreased the mRNA expression of proinflammatory genes, inhibited the activation of NF-κB and suppressed the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase, P38MAPK and c-Jun N-terminal kinase. This inhibition of inflammation was more apparent in the presence of high-level cortisol (30 ng/mL). These results indicated that selenium has an anti-inflammatory effect, which is mediated via NF-κB and MAPK signalling pathways and is augmented by cortisol in bovine endometrial epithelial cells.

Beef Cattle Preference and Usage of Environmental Enrichments Provided Simultaneously in a Pasture-Based Environment

Environmental enrichment can improve livestock welfare through increasing environmental complexity to promote a greater range of natural behaviours. However, there is limited understanding of the need for and impacts of enrichments for extensively managed beef cattle that can sometimes be kept in grassed paddocks devoid of additional natural and artificial features, i.e., ‘barren pastures’. This trial assessed which enrichments beef cattle preferred and utilised in a barren paddock environment. Eight groups of seven Angus steers housed on pastured paddocks devoid of natural or artificial features were observed during daylight hours for two days a week over a period of three weeks, after being presented with four enrichments simultaneously: a cattle brush, a piece of hanging rope, a tree stump, and a woodchip pile. Although enrichment use generally decreased over time, the brush, stump, and woodchip maintained a higher level of use than the rope, based on the frequency of interactions and number of displacements around the enrichments (both p < 0.001). This suggests that the brush, stump, and woodchip pile were more valuable resources to the cattle, allowing for grooming and lying behaviours, although oral manipulations also occurred on the stump, woodchip, and rope. The inclusion of these enrichments can increase the complexity of barren pasture environments and allow for the increased expression of natural behaviours, potentially contributing to improved welfare.

A “Good Life” for Dairy Cattle: Developing and Piloting a Framework for Assessing Positive Welfare Opportunities Based on Scientific Evidence and Farmer Expertise

Simple Summary

There is increasing appetite to understand how we can provide quality of life to farm animals. A framework to evaluate positive welfare opportunities for dairy cattle was developed using a participatory approach where farmer’s recommendations were integrated into a scientific framework and piloted on farm by vets. When provided with the opportunity to collaborate, farmers and scientists broadly agree on what constitutes “a good life” for dairy cattle and worked together to develop an assessment framework. Farmers did not agree equally on the value of each positive welfare opportunity. However, farmers supported positive welfare assessment as a means of recognition and reward for higher animal welfare, within existing farm assurance schemes, and to justify national and global marketing claims of higher animal welfare.

Abstract

On-farm welfare assessment tends to focus on minimising negative welfare, but providing positive welfare is important in order to give animals a good life. This study developed a positive welfare framework for dairy cows based on the existing scientific literature which has focused on developing positive welfare indicators, and trialled a participatory approach with farmers; refining the framework based on their recommendations, followed by a vet pilot phase on farm. The results revealed that farmers and scientists agree on what constitutes “a good life” for dairy cattle. Farmers value positive welfare because they value their cows’ quality of life, and want to be proud of their work, improve their own wellbeing as well as receive business benefits. For each good life resource, the proportion of farmers going above and beyond legislation ranged from 27 to 84%. Furthermore, barriers to achieving positive welfare opportunities, including monetary and time costs, were not apparently insurmountable if implementation costs were remunerated (by the government). However, the intrinsic value in providing such opportunities also incentivises farmers. Overall, most farmers appeared to support positive welfare assessment, with the largest proportion (50%) supporting its use within existing farm assurance schemes, or to justify national and global marketing claims. Collaborating with farmers to co-create policy is crucial to showcase and quantify the UK’s high welfare standards, and to maximise engagement, relevance and uptake of animal welfare policy, to ensure continuous improvement and leadership in the quality of lives for farm animals.

Effects of prolonged lock-up time on milk production and health of dairy cattle

Self-locking feed stanchions provide ease and reduce the amount of time spent handling cattle on free-stall dairy barns. These stanchions assist with routine farm activities such as pregnancy diagnosis, artificial insemination, and various health-related practices. ‘Lock-up time’ refers to the amount of time a cow is restrained in the barn within one day and the producers suggest to keep this duration of time as minimal as possible. This review paper looks at various effects of extended length of lock-up time with regards to milk production, reproductive performance, and dairy cattle health. The objective is to investigate potential effects of extended lock-up time and suggest optimal lock-up time as discussed in the literature. Authors have observed an average lockup time of approximately 1–4 hours per day in the farms in southwest USA. Restraint in self-locking head stanchions for extended period (> 4 h per day) could lead to multiple detrimental effects in dairy cow performance. The focus should be to manage the farm adequately by minimizing the restraint time to less than 4 hours per day, and avoid use of headlocks during late morning and afternoon hours of the summer months. Different studies infer that longer lock-up time presents animals with significant stress situations and represents one of the major issue in dairy industry that needs immediate attention.

Effects of Saccharomyces Cerevisiae Cultures on Performance and Immune Performance of Dairy Cows During Heat Stress

The dairy farming industry is facing massive economic losses as heat stress continues to rise. The purpose of this study was to see how feeding Saccharomyces cerevisiae culture (SC) influences productive performance, lactation performance, serum biochemical indexes, hormonal level, antioxidant capacity, and immune function in mid-lactating cows during heat stress. Forty-five healthy mid-lactation dairy cows with comparable milk yield, lactation days, and parity were randomly divided into 3 groups (15 cows in each group). The control group (CON) was fed the basal diet, while the treatment groups were fed the basal diet + first Saccharomyces cerevisiae culture 100 g/d (SC-1) and the basal diet + second Saccharomyces cerevisiae culture 30 g/d (SC-2), respectively. The SC-1 and SC-2 groups with SC added in the treatment groups reduced rectal temperature and respiratory rate in heat-stressed cows (P &lt; 0.05). The milk yield of SC-1 and SC-2 treatment groups was significantly higher than that of CON (P &lt; 0.05). Except for somatic cell count, which was significantly lower in SC-1 and SC-2 than in CON (P &lt; 0.05), there were no significant differences in the milk components. The addition of SC: (i) increased serum urea levels (P &lt; 0.05), but there was no significant difference in glucose, total cholesterol, alanine transaminase, aspartate aminotransferase, total protein, albumin and alkaline phosphatase levels (P &gt; 0.05); (ii) increased serum levels of immunoglobulin-A, immunoglobulin-G, immunoglobulin M, interleukin-4, interleukin-10 and heat shock protein-70 (P &lt; 0.05), while decreasing serum levels of interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, interleukin-2, interferon-γ and tumor necrosis factor-α (P &lt; 0.05); (iii) increased total antioxidant capacity, glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase in serum (P &lt; 0.05), while decreasing malondialdehyde; (iv) increased serum levels of glucocorticoids, insulin, cortisol and prolactin (P &lt; 0.05), while decreasing the serum levels of triiodothyronine and thyroxine (P &lt; 0.05). In conclusion, under the current experimental conditions, the addition of SC can reduce rectal temperature and respiratory rate in heat-stressed mid-lactation cows, reduce the number of somatic cells in milk and improve the mid-lactation cow performance. In addition, SC addition to the diet can raise serum urea levels, regulate serum hormone levels, boost antioxidant capacity in mid-lactation cows, and boost overall immunity.

Daytime Grazing in Mountainous Areas Increases Unsaturated Fatty Acids and Decreases Cortisol in the Milk of Holstein Dairy Cows

The effects of grazing lactating cows in mountainous areas for 12 and 24 h compared with the confined indoor system were evaluated by examining the overall milk fatty acid and cortisol. Twenty-one dairy cows were allocated to three treatment groups: (1) control (confined management system in a free-stall barn; TMR based), (2) grazing for 12 h (12 hG; TMR plus grazing pasture), and (3) grazing for 24 h (24 hG; pasture-based feeding system). Dry matter intake was higher in the control and 12 hG groups than in the 24 hG group. The yields of total milk and the 3.5% fat-corrected milk were the lowest in the 24 hG group. Milk fat was the highest in the 24 hG group and higher in 12 hG compared with the control group. Milk protein and lactose levels were the highest in the 12 hG group. The highest somatic cell count was observed in the 24 hG group. The saturated fatty acid levels were higher in the control group compared with the 12 hG and 24 hG groups. There was no difference in overall mono-unsaturated fatty acids between 12 hG and 24 hG groups. Poly-unsaturated fatty acids were higher in the 12 hG group compared with the control and 24 hG groups. There was no difference in omega-6 (ω-6) fatty acids among the groups, and omega-3 fatty acids were higher in the 12 hG group than in the control group. Milk cortisol was the highest in the 24 hG group and higher in the control group compared with the 12 hG group. Taken together, grazing for 12 h is advisable for farms that have access to mountainous areas to improve the milk fatty acid profile and decrease the stress levels in high-yielding Holstein lactating cows.

Do Walking Distance and Time Away from the Paddock Influence Daily Behaviour Patterns and Milk Yield of Grazing Dairy Cows?

In pasture-based systems, cows may spend several hours away from the paddock and may also walk several kilometres to meet daily milking requirements; this could lead cows to experience time constraints for grazing, ruminating and lying time in the paddock. This study investigated how walking distance and time spent away from the paddock affected daily behavioural patterns (i.e., grazing, ruminating and lying time) and milk yield. Dairy cows were managed in three rotationally grazed groups (n = 29 cows each) on the same farm and milked twice daily. A triaxial ear tag accelerometer on each cow recorded daily duration of grazing and ruminating, and a leg-based accelerometer recorded the daily lying time, for 13 days. GPS collars on four cows per group recorded the daily walking distance and total time away from the paddock for the group. A mixed repeated measures model tested how time off-paddock and walking distance affected the daily behavioural patterns; age, breed, milk yield and maximum ambient temperature were used as covariates with group as the observational unit. A second similar model tested how these factors affected milk yield. Walking distance and time spent away from the paddock were not correlated. When daily walking distance increased (to a maximum of 4 km/d), cows spent more time grazing and less time ruminating, but lying time was not affected. This result may, in part, be related to the greater energy expenditure demands for walking longer distances and milk production. When time away from the paddock increased (to a maximum of 4 h/d), cows spent less time lying, but grazing and ruminating times were not affected. Milk yield was not affected by walking distance, but one of the groups experienced a lower milk yield when time away from the paddock was increased. This result suggests that, for some cows, lying times may be shorter when experiencing a longer time away from the paddock, which may also affect milk yield. Overall, this study indicates that paddock behaviours are associated with walking distance to the milking parlour and time spent away from the paddock. Efforts to reduce walking distance and time spent away from the paddock are likely to provide cows with greater opportunity to engage in daily behaviours in the paddock that meet their needs and maintain their milk yield.

Invited review: The welfare of dairy cattle housed in tiestalls compared to less-restrictive housing types: A systematic review

Many dairy cattle worldwide are housed in tiestalls, meaning that they are tethered by the neck to individual stalls. On some farms, tied cattle are permitted seasonal access to pasture, but otherwise their movements are restricted compared with cows housed in freestall barns or other loose housing systems. The aim of this systematic review is to summarize the scientific literature pertaining the welfare of tied dairy cattle through comparison with less-restrictive housing systems. Articles identified by PubMed and Web of Science underwent a 5-phase screening process, resulting in the inclusion of 102 papers. These papers addressed measures of welfare related to affective state, natural behavior, and health (with the lattermost category subdivided into hoof and leg disorders, lameness, mastitis, transition disease, and other diseases or conditions). Health was the most researched topic (discussed in 86% of articles); only 19% and 14% of studies addressed natural behavior and affective state, respectively. Our review highlights different health benefits for tethered and loose cattle. For example, tied cattle experience reduced prevalence of white line disease and digital dermatitis, whereas loose cattle experience fewer leg lesions and injuries. The prevalence of mastitis, transition diseases, and other conditions did not differ consistently across housing types. We found that the expression of certain natural behaviors, particularly those associated with lying down (e.g., time spent kneeling, unfulfilled intentions to lie down), were impaired in tiestalls. Articles addressing affective state found benefits to loose housing, but these studies focused almost exclusively on (1) physiological measurements and (2) cow comfort, a concept that lacks a consistent operational definition across studies. We call for future research into the affective state of tied cattle that extends beyond these explorations and employs more sophisticated methodologies.

Invited review: Lying time and the welfare of dairy cows

Adequate time lying down is often considered an important aspect of dairy cow welfare. We examine what is known about cows' motivation to lie down and the consequences for health and other indicators of biological function when this behavior is thwarted. We review the environmental and animal-based factors that affect lying time in the context of animal welfare. Our objective is to review the research into the time that dairy cows spend lying down and to critically examine the evidence for the link with animal welfare. Cows can be highly motivated to lie down. They show rebound lying behavior after periods of forced standing and will sacrifice other activities, such as feeding, to lie down for an adequate amount of time. They will work, by pushing levers or weighted gates, to lie down and show possible indicators of frustration when lying behavior is thwarted. Some evidence suggests that risk of lameness is increased in environments that provide unfavorable conditions for cows to lie down and where cows are forced to stand. Lameness itself can result in longer lying times, whereas mastitis reduces it. Cow-based factors such as reproductive status, age, and milk production influence lying time, but the welfare implications of these differences are unknown. Lower lying times are reported in pasture-based systems, dry lots, and bedded packs (9 h/d) compared with tiestalls and freestalls (10 to 12 h/d) in cross-farm research. Unfavorable conditions, including too few lying stalls for the number of cows, hard or wet lying surfaces, inadequate bedding, stalls that are too small or poorly designed, heat, and rain all reduce lying time. Time constraints, such as feeding or milking, can influence lying time. However, more information is needed about the implications of mediating factors such as the effect of the standing surface (concrete, pasture, or other surfaces) and cow behavior while standing (e.g., being restrained, walking, grazing) to understand the effect of low lying times on animal welfare. Many factors contribute to the difficulty of finding a valid threshold for daily lying time to use in the assessment of animal welfare. Although higher lying times often correspond with cow comfort, and lower lying times are seen in unfavorable conditions, exceptions occur, namely when cows lie down for longer because of disease or when they spend more time standing because of estrus or parturition, or to engage in other behaviors. In conclusion, lying behavior is important to dairy cattle, but caution and a full understanding of the context and the character of the animals in question is needed before drawing firm conclusions about animal welfare from measures of lying time.

Virtual Fencing Technology Excludes Beef Cattle from an Environmentally Sensitive Area

Simple Summary

The eShepherd^® virtual fencing system being commercialized for cattle has the potential to exclude cattle from environmentally sensitive areas. Animals are given audio cues to indicate a fence line via a neckband device. An electrical pulse is administered if the animal continues moving forward following an audio cue. A commercial trial was conducted in South Australia to assess whether virtual fencing technology could exclude 20 cattle from an area of regenerating saplings, across 44 days, using a contoured fence line. The results demonstrated that the cattle were able to rapidly learn the virtual fencing cues, responding primarily to the audio cue alone, and were excluded from the regenerating area for 99.8% of the trial period. Behavioral time budgets measured by automated devices on the leg changed across the trial duration, but in no consistent pattern. At the trial conclusion, the feed available in the protected zone was double the quantity and quality of the grazed zone. Thus, virtual fencing technology using pre-commercial prototypes was shown to protect an environmental asset within a paddock from cattle grazing in the presence of a large feed differential.

Abstract

The eShepherd^® virtual fencing system being commercialized for cattle has the potential to exclude cattle from environmentally sensitive areas. Animals are given audio cues to indicate a fence line via a neckband device. An electrical pulse is administered if the animal continues moving forward following an audio cue. A commercial trial was conducted in South Australia to assess whether virtual fencing technology could exclude 20 cattle from an area of regenerating saplings; across 44 days; using a contoured fence line. The results showed that the cattle were able to rapidly learn the virtual fencing cues; responding appropriately to the audio cue for 74.5% of 4378 audio signals; and were excluded from the regenerating area for 99.8% of the trial period with the more complex fence line (contoured; not straight) in place. IceQube R’s^® measuring lying time and bouts showed no consistent increasing or decreasing pattern of change. At the trial conclusion; the feed available in the protected zone was double the quantity and quality of the grazed zone. Technical issues occurred with some of the pre-commercial prototype devices; but those versions are now obsolete. This study observed a single group of cattle in one paddock; further testing of the virtual technology is warranted.

Minimally Invasive Markers of Stress and Production Parameters in Dairy Cows before and after the Installation of a Voluntary Milking System

Automatic milking systems (AMS) are a low-labour alternative to conventional parlours, with previous studies demonstrating that cows vary in their ability to cope with the change to AMS. Cortisol expression can be combined with other measures to assess stress: saliva and hair have the advantage of requiring minimally invasive sampling. No work has investigated the long-term impact of introduction of AMS. The aims of the study were to assess short-term and chronic stress associated with a change in milking system by measuring salivary and hair cortisol levels and to assess the impact on health and production parameters. Cows from one farm changing their milking system were recruited to the study and sampled for saliva (n = 10) and hair (n = 12) before and after installation. Cortisol levels were measured using a salivary cortisol enzyme immunoassay kit. Body condition, lameness and milk parameters of the whole herd were regularly assessed. Salivary cortisol showed no diurnal pattern but was affected by lameness and gestation. Non-lame cows showed a reduction in salivary cortisol after AMS introduction (p < 0.001). Hair cortisol levels increased after AMS, but it was unclear if this change was seasonal. Milk yield increased by 13% and somatic cell count reduced by 28%. Body condition score was consistently good, but lameness remained high throughout the study. Production values alone do not represent high welfare. The high lameness and associated cortisol levels suggest that cow stress requires consideration when changing milking systems.

Welfare of beef cattle in Australian feedlots: a review of the risks and measures

The rising global demand for animal protein is leading to intensification of livestock production systems. At the same time, societal concerns about sustainability and animal welfare in intensive systems is increasing. This review examines the risks to welfare for beef cattle within commercial feedlots in Australia. Several aspects of the feedlot environment have the potential to compromise the physical and psychological welfare of cattle if not properly monitored and managed. These include, but are not limited to, animal factors such as the influence of genetics, temperament and prior health, as well as management factors such as diet, pen design, resource provision, pregnancy management, and stock-person attitudes and skills. While current industry and producer initiatives exist to address some of these issues, continuous improvements in welfare requires accurate, reliable and repeatable measures to allow quantification of current and future welfare states. Existing measures of welfare are explored as well as proxy indicators that may signal the presence of improved or reduced welfare. Finally, potential future measures of welfare that are currently under development are discussed and recommendations for future research are made.

Effect of Holstein genotype on innate immune and metabolic responses of heifers to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration

Heifers (n = 4/genotype) from unselected (stable genotype since 1964, UH) and contemporary (CH) Holsteins that differed in milk yield (6,200 and 11,100 kg milk/305 d) were used to assess the impact of selection on innate immune and acute-phase response to an endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide; LPS). Jugular catheters were implanted 24 h before LPS administration. Blood samples were collected at -1, -0.5, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, and 24 h relative to iv administration of 0.5 μg LPS/kg BW. Rectal body temperature (BT) was determined at these sampling times and at 5 and 7 h. Dermal biopsies were collected after the 24 h blood sample and processed to isolate fibroblasts. Plasma was analyzed for tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), serum amyloid A (SAA), xanthine oxidase (XO), and nitrate + nitrite (NOx), cortisol, glucose, and IGF-1 content. Isolated fibroblasts were exposed to IL-1β or LPS and IL-6 and IL-8 content of culture media determined. Exposure to LPS increased BTs and plasma concentrations of TNF-α, IL-6 SAA, XO, cortisol, and glucose (P < 0.05) in both genotypes. Plasma concentrations of TNF-α, XO, NOx, and glucose did not differ (P > 0.25) between the genotypes, but IL-6 and SAA concentrations were reduced (P < 0.05) in CH relative to UH heifers while cortisol and IGF-1 concentrations tended (P < 0.08) to be reduced in CH heifers. After 36 h exposure to LPS, concentrations of IL-6 were greater (P < 0.05) in culture media from incubations of CH than UH fibroblasts but concentrations of IL-8 did not differ between genotypes. There was a trend (P = 0.08) for IL-8 concentrations to be reduced in media from CH fibroblasts exposed to IL-1β for 24 h but IL-6 concentrations did not differ between genotypes. Results indicate 50 yr of selection has reduced the robustness of the innate immune and acute-phase response to LPS in the contemporary Holstein heifer.

Symposium review: The impact of management and facilities on cow culling rates

This symposium review examines the association between comfort and cow longevity, with a particular emphasis on optimizing resting behavior in confinement-housed systems. Housed dairy cattle demonstrate a variety of negative behavioral and physiological effects when lying time is restricted, with cows prioritizing the recovery of rest over feeding when both are deprived. There is, however, wide individual-cow variation in daily lying times, influenced by an array of cow-, housing-, and management-related factors. Cow-related factors include individual preference, parity, stage of lactation cycle, milk yield, ill health, and lameness. Lying time tends to increase with age and days in milk and during periods of ill health, whereas milk yield is negatively correlated with lying time. The effect of lameness is complicated by severity and by interactions with bedding type, which modifies the cows' ability to rise and lie down. Generally, lame cows suffer prolonged lying bouts of greater variability in length and take fewer bouts per day. Often this results in an overall increase in lying time. Thus, higher standards of cow comfort and improved cow health are not always reflected by longer lying times. Housing and management factors that influence resting behavior include the design of the resting area, access to the resting space, and the thermal microenvironment of the lying area. Provision of dry, deep loose bedding, stocking cows to allow each animal access to a resting space, allowing sufficient time to access the resting area, and providing heat abatement to reduce heat load optimize resting behavior. Because lameness and poor body condition are commonly found in culled dairy cattle, the link between cow comfort and culling is likely mediated through lameness onset and management. Optimal comfort helps prevent the onset of lameness and facilitates recovery once cows become lame, which limits the effect of lameness on feeding behavior and reduces the risk for other health-related disorders, poor reproductive performance, and early herd removal. Cow comfort cannot be assessed by measuring the duration of lying time alone. Rather, comfort is reflected by the optimization of resting behavior, providing facilities and management to allow cows to lie down when they choose to do so for as long as they need to.

Virtual Fencing Is Comparable to Electric Tape Fencing for Cattle Behavior and Welfare

Virtual fencing technology restricts animal movement via communicated signals without physical boundaries. Specifically, the eShepherd™ automated virtual fencing system operates via GPS technology and provides stimuli via a neckband device. An audio warning tone is emitted at the virtual boundary which is followed by an electrical pulse if the animal continues moving forward. Animal welfare is a priority consideration for the commercial implementation of virtual fencing systems. The current study assessed the effects of a virtual fence, in comparison to an electric tape fence, to contain eight groups of eight 12–14 month old steers within a 6-ha area across eight separate paddocks for 4 weeks following 1 week acclimation to the paddocks. Cattle were assessed across two cohorts (four groups/cohort) from January until March 2019 in Australia. Body weight and fecal samples from each animal were taken weekly. Fecal samples were processed for fecal cortisol metabolite (FCM) concentrations. IceQube R®'s fitted to the leg measured individual lying and standing time and the virtual fencing neckbands recorded GPS location and all administered audio and electrical stimuli. Cattle were maintained within their allocated area by both fence types across the 4-week period and those with the virtual fences were responding correctly to the audio cue with an average of 71.51 ± 2.26% of all cues across all animals being audio only. There was individual variation in rate of learning. The electric tape groups in cohort 1 showed a greater increase in body weight over 4 weeks than the virtual fence groups (P < 0.001) but this difference was not confirmed in cohort 2. The fence type statistically influenced the total daily lying time (P = 0.02) with less lying in cattle from the virtual fence groups but this difference equated to an average of <20 min per day. There were no differences between fence types in FCM concentrations (P = 0.39) and the concentrations decreased across time for all cattle (P < 0.001). These results indicate that virtual fencing technology effectively contains animals in a prescribed area across 4 weeks without substantial behavioral and welfare impacts on the cattle.

Case-control study on factors associated with a decreased milk yield and a depressed health status of dairy herds in northern Germany

BACKGROUND

In the past years, it became apparent that health status and performance differ considerably within dairy farms in Northern Germany. In order to obtain clues with respect to possible causes of these differences, a case-control study was performed. Case farms, which showed signs of health and performance problems, and control farms, which had none of these signs, were compared. Risk factors from different areas such as health management, housing, hygiene and nutrition were investigated as these are known to be highly influential. The aim of this study was to identify major factors within these areas that have the strongest association with health and performance problems of dairy herds in Northern Germany.

RESULTS

In the final model, a lower energy density in the roughage fraction of the diet, more pens with dirty lying areas and a low ratio of cows per watering spaces were associated with a higher risk for herd health problems. Moreover, case farms were affected by infections with intestinal parasites, lungworms, liver flukes and Johne's Disease numerically more often than control farms. Case farms more often had pens with raised cubicles compared to the deep bedded stalls or straw yards found in control farms. In general, the hygiene of the floors and beddings was worse in case farms. Concerning nutrition, the microbiological and sensory quality of the provided silages was often insufficient, even in control farms. Less roughage was provided to early lactating cows and the feed was pushed to the feeding fence less frequently in case farms than in control farms.

CONCLUSIONS

The results show that milk yield and health status were associated with various factors from different areas stressing the importance of all aspects of management for good animal health and performance. Moreover, this study confirmed well-known risk factors for health problems and performance losses. These should better be taken heed of in herd health management.

Pasture Access Affects Behavioral Indicators of Wellbeing in Dairy Cows

Simple Summary

Dairy cows in Europe and the United States are increasingly housed indoors year-round. Even cows with pasture access are usually kept inside during the winter and around calving. However, animal welfare scientists and dairy consumers are concerned that full-time housing impacts cattle welfare. We investigated how pasture influences behavioral indicators of wellbeing. Using cow pedometers, we recorded 29 animals’ lying and walking activity during 18 days of pasture access and 18 days of indoor housing. Cattle at pasture had fewer lying bouts but longer lying times, indicating they were more comfortable and less restless. Lying behavior was also more synchronous outdoors, with most of the herd lying at the same time. These results indicate pasture provides a comfortable surface and reduces competition for lying space. Furthermore, cows at pasture walked farther, with potential benefits for their physical health and psychological wellbeing. Our findings contribute to the growing body of evidence that pasture access improves dairy cow welfare. As a society, we must decide whether full-time housing is a price worth paying for dairy products.

Abstract

Dairy cows are increasingly housed indoors, either year-round or for long stretches over the winter and around parturition. This may create health and welfare issues. In cattle, lying and walking are highly motivated, and herds synchronize lying behavior when they have comfortable surfaces and little competition for space. Lying and walking activity can, therefore, indicate good welfare. Using a repeated measures crossover design, we gave 29 Holstein–Friesian dairy cows 18 days of overnight pasture access (PAS treatment) and 18 days of indoor housing (PEN treatment). Accelerometers recorded their lying and locomotory behavior. We measured behavioral synchrony with Fleiss’ Kappa and analyzed the accelerometry data using linear mixed models. Compared to the PEN treatment, the PAS treatment had longer overnight lying durations (χ²₁ = 27.51, p < 0.001), fewer lying bouts (χ²₁ = 22.53, p < 0.001), longer lying bouts (χ²₁ = 25.53, p < 0.001), and fewer transitions up or down (χ²₁ = 16.83, p < 0.001). Herd lying behavior was also more synchronous at pasture (χ²₁ = 230.25, p < 0.001). In addition, nightly step counts were higher in the PAS treatment than the PEN treatment (χ²₁ = 2946.31, p < 0.001). These results suggest pasture access improves dairy cow welfare by increasing comfort, reducing competition and boredom, and facilitating motivated behavior.

Cow Lying Behaviour and Bedding Quality Changes during Five Weeks on a Stand-Off Pad

Simple Summary

New Zealand dairy farmers place cows in uncovered off-paddock facilities for a part (e.g., 18 h) of the day to reduce their impact on pasture during winter. Lying time is a key indicator of whether these hybrid pasture systems are meeting welfare requirements. While it is easy to measure lying time in a research setting using accelerometers, it is not yet common to measure it on farm, and more convenient indicators are needed. We investigated the lying behaviour of dairy cows as bedding quality deteriorated over a five-week period to determine what measures may be useful as farmer-friendly indicators of cow welfare. The daily lying time of the two groups of cows on bedding according to normal farm practice (NFP) declined over the five weeks and was significantly less than that of cows on fresh bedding during the last 10 days of the trial. The fresh woodchip bedding contained less than 65% moisture throughout the trial. By week 3 and week 4, the moisture content of the lying surface exceeded 75% for NFP Group 2 and Group1, respectively. A bedding moisture threshold of 75% assessed by a ‘gumboot score’ and cows lying rather than grazing when on pasture may be useful farmer-friendly indicators of cow welfare because of their relationship with reduced lying time.

Abstract

Bedding quality and cow lying time were measured during five weeks in a normal farm practice (NFP) off-paddock system with no bedding refreshment. Two groups of 100 non-lactating dairy cows were compared to groups of 8 cows with fresh bedding (FB). The cows were on a woodchip pad for 18 h/d at a space allowance of 5.4 m²/cow, with 6 h/d on pasture for 5 weeks. Lying times were recorded continuously for 60 cows per group using accelerometers. Bedding moisture content was measured weekly. Data for each NFP group were analysed and compared with those of their respective FB group using repeated measures. The lying time declined over five weeks from 11.6 h/day during the first week to 5.6 h/day during the fifth week (SED = 0.3; F_1,25 = 351.56; p < 0.001). The moisture content of the bedding increased over the five weeks and was significantly higher for both NFP groups (NFP Group 1: F_5,59 = 8.33; p < 0.001; NFP Group 2: F_5,61 = 5.54; p < 0.001) than those of the respective FB groups. The percentage of total time lying when in the paddock increased for the NFP groups, reaching 15% in the last week of the trial. During five weeks on a stand-off pad, bedding quality deteriorated, and cows lay down less, to such an extent that welfare was compromised.

Milk Yield, Milk Composition, and the Nutritive Value of Feed Accessed Varies with Milking Order for Pasture-Based Dairy Cattle

(1) Background: Pasture varies in its chemical composition from the top of the sward to the base and cattle prefer to eat the leaf fraction. In pasture-based dairy systems, cattle predominantly walk back to pasture voluntarily after each milking, with the first cattle arriving to pasture hours before the last. Here we study the impact of pasture composition according to milking order on milk yield and milk composition for dairy cattle offered grazed ryegrass pasture. (2) Methods: In the first experiment, individual cow milk yield data were recorded on six farms over 8 months. The herd was divided into groups of 50 cows for analysis according to milking order. In the second experiment, the impact of milking order on milk composition and pasture composition accessed was determined in addition to milk yield on three farms. (3) Results: After accounting for age and stage of lactation effects, cattle milked first in experiment 1 produced, on average, 4.5 L/cow/day (+18%; range 14 to 29%) more than cattle milked last. In experiment 2, dairy cattle milked first (first 50 cows) in farm 1 had greater milk, protein, and solids non-fat (SNF) yield; and less lactose content than those milked last (last 50 cows). In farm 2, dairy cattle milked first had greater milk yield, SNF yield, lactose yield, and fat yield; but less protein and SNF content than cattle milked last. In farm 3, cattle milked first produced milk with greater fat and protein content than cattle milked last. In line with these differences in milk yield and composition, the composition of pasture across vertical strata differed, particularly for crude protein (CP) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) content. Conclusion: This work highlights the opportunity to increase herd nutrient use efficiency for improved milk production through strategic pasture allowance and supplementation strategies.

Chronic stress influences attentional and judgement bias and the activity of the HPA axis in sheep

INTRODUCTION

Environmental challenges are part of everyday life for most domestic animals. However, very little is known about how animals cope emotionally and physiologically with cumulative challenges. This experiment aimed to determine the impact of long-term exposure to environmental challenges on the affective state and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis responses to a subsequent additional acute shearing challenge.

METHODS

Sheep were exposed to either a long-term environmental challenge (rest disruption and individual housing) in order to induce chronic stress (chronic stress group) or control conditions (group housing in a field with low stress handling and daily feed rewards, control group). Judgement and attention bias were assessed as measures of the emotional state following several days of the challenge or control treatment (pre-shearing tests). In addition, the responsiveness of the HPA-axis was evaluated using a combined Corticotropin Releasing Hormone and Arginine Vasopressin (CRH/AVP) challenge. Finally, all animals were exposed to an acute shearing challenge, then judgement bias (post-shearing test), HPA-axis and internal body temperature responses were determined.

RESULTS

In the pre-shearing judgement bias test, the chronic stress group slightly increased optimism compared to the control treatment. In the attention bias test, the chronic stress group showed reduced vigilance behaviour towards a predator threat and a quicker approach to the food compared to the control treatment. The chronic stress group also had lower plasma ACTH concentrations in response to the CRH/AVP challenge compared to the control group, no differences in cortisol concentrations were found. In the post-shearing judgement bias test, differences in optimism were no longer evident between the chronic stress and control groups. Plasma ACTH concentrations and body temperatures showed a greater increase in response to shearing in the chronic stress group compared to the control group.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that long-term exposure to challenges biased cognitive measures of the affective state towards an increased expectation of a reward and reduced attention towards a threat. The exaggerated ACTH responses in the chronic stress group may be indicative of HPA-axis dysregulation. Despite a period of challenge exposure in the chronic stress group, judgement bias responses to the shearing challenge were similar in the chronic stress and control groups; the reasons for this need further investigation. The altered affective state together with signs of HPA-axis dysregulation may indicate an increased risk of compromised welfare in animals exposed to long-term environmental challenges.

Impact of Daily Grazing Time on Dairy Cow Welfare-Results of the Welfare Quality® Protocol

Grazing provides livestock better opportunities to act out their species-specific behavior compared to restrictive stable conditions. The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of daily grazing time on welfare of dairy cows in organic and conventional farms based on the Welfare Quality^® assessment protocol for dairy cattle (WQ^®). Therefore, we applied the WQ^® on 32 dairy farms (classified in 3 groups: Group 0, minor/zero grazing, n = 14; Group 1, medium grazing, n = 10; Group 2, high grazing, n = 8). We assessed the status of animal welfare once in winter and once in summer. For statistical analyses we used mixed models for repeated measures, with group, season, and their interaction as fixed factors. At the WQ^® criteria level, five out of nine examined criteria improved in farms with grazing between winter and summer. In contrast, the welfare situation in minor/zero grazing farms remained largely unchanged. At the level of WQ^® measures, only the individual parameters "% of cows with hairless patches" and "% of lame cows" were affected positively by high grazing. Grazing offers a potential to enhance welfare of dairy cows during the summer season, while beneficial effects are not guaranteed when management does not satisfy the animals´ needs.

Short communication: Milking order consistency of dairy cows in large Australian herds

We used on-farm records from dairy infrastructure to examine the consistency of the milking order over 150 d in 5 Australian dairy herds that were milking more than 500 cows as a single group. Within a single day the difference in milking order rank position was less than 20 percentage points for 72% of cows. The correlation coefficient comparing milking rank position in the morning and afternoon was 0.72, with the position of cows at the beginning and end of the milking order being more consistent than cows toward the middle of the milking order. Over a period of 150 d, cows with a mean position in the first and last 20% of the milking order maintained their position more consistently than cows in the middle of the milking order. Milking position of cows between one month and the next was highly correlated (r = 0.88). In large herds, subpopulations of cows are regularly milked toward the beginning and the end of the milking order. It is common for cows to be collected from the paddock as a group, to wait as a group in the dairy yard to be milked, and to return individually to the paddock or feed pad immediately after they have been milked. Thus, cows milked later in the milking order are likely to be away from the paddock for several hours longer than cows milked earlier in the milking order. This may affect their welfare though differences in time available for lying down, equality of pasture eaten, and time spent standing in the dairy yard.

Tech-Savvy Beef Cattle? How Heifers Respond to Moving Virtual Fence Lines

Simple Summary

Physical fences are not always possible, thus automated technology called “virtual fencing” provides a potential solution. Virtual fencing uses Global Positioning System (GPS) technology and animals wear collar devices. As animals approach the virtual fence line, the collar emits an audio tone; if the animals walk further forward, they receive an electrical stimulus. If the animal turns around after the audio tone, they receive no electrical stimulus. However, no studies to date have looked at how animals respond when virtual fences have moved to different paddock locations. Virtual boundaries were set up to restrict six beef cattle wearing collars to different paddock areas. Within a few days, the animals were able to avoid the electrical stimulus by learning to turn away from the fence when they heard the audio tone. Over several weeks, the virtual fence was moved to three different locations within the paddock, and the animals rapidly learned it had moved, turning away at the audio tone the majority of the time. This shows that animals can learn the different collar signals and avoid moving virtual boundaries via the audio tone. The application of virtual fencing to farms enables improved animal management and animal exclusion from environmentally sensitive areas.

Abstract

Global Positioning System (GPS)-based virtual fences offer the potential to improve the management of grazing animals. Prototype collar devices utilising patented virtual fencing algorithms were placed on six Angus heifers in a 6.15 hectare paddock. After a “no fence” period, sequential, shifting virtual fences restricted the animals to 40%, 60%, and 80% of the paddock area widthways and 50% lengthways across 22 days. Audio cues signaled the virtual boundary, and were paired with electrical stimuli if the animals continued forward into the boundary. Within approximately 48 h, the cattle learned the 40% fence and were henceforth restricted to the subsequent inclusion zones a minimum of 96.70% (±standard error 0.01%) of the time. Over time, the animals increasingly stayed within the inclusion zones using audio cues alone, and on average, approached the new fence within 4.25 h. The animals were thus attentive to the audio cue, not the fence location. The time spent standing and lying and the number of steps were similar between inclusion zones (all p ≥ 0.42). More lying bouts occurred at the 80% and lengthways inclusion zones relative to “no fence” (p = 0.04). Further research should test different cattle groups in variable paddock settings and measure physiological welfare responses to the virtual fencing stimuli.

Stress and immunological response of heifers divergently ranked for residual feed intake following an adrenocorticotropic hormone challenge

BACKGROUND

When an animal is exposed to a stressor, metabolic rate, energy consumption and utilisation increase primarily through activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Changes to partitioning of energy by an animal are likely to influence the efficiency with which it is utilised. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the physiological stress response to an exogenous adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) challenge in beef heifers divergently ranked on phenotypic residual feed intake (RFI).

RESULTS

Data were collected on 34 Simmental weaning beef heifers the progeny of a well characterized and divergently bred RFI suckler beef herd. Residual feed intake was determined on each animal during the post-weaning stage over a 91-day feed intake measurement period during which they were individually offered adlibitum grass silage and 2 kg of concentrate per head once daily. The 12 highest [0.34 kg DM/d] and 12 lowest [-0.48 kg DM/d] ranking animals on RFI were selected for use in this study. For the physiological stress challenge heifers (mean age 605 ± 13 d; mean BW 518 ± 31.4 kg) were fitted aseptically with indwelling jugular catheters to facilitate intensive blood collection. The response of the adrenal cortex to a standardised dose of ACTH (1.98 IU/kg metabolic BW^0.75) was examined. Serial blood samples were analysed for plasma cortisol, ACTH and haematology variables. Heifers differing in RFI did not differ (P = 0.59) in ACTH concentrations. Concentration of ACTH peaked (P < 0.001) in both RFI groups at 20 min post-ACTH administration, following which concentration declined to baseline levels by 150 min. Similarly, cortisol systemic profile peaked at 60 min and concentrations remained continuously elevated for 150 min. A RFI × time interaction was detected for cortisol concentrations (P = 0.06) with high RFI heifers had a greater cortisol response than Low RFI from 40 min to 150 min relative to ACTH administration. Cortisol response was positively associated with RFI status (r = 0.32; P < 0.01). No effect of RFI was evident for neutrophil, lymphocytes, monocyte, eosinophils and basophil count. Plasma red blood cell number (6.07 vs. 6.23; P = 0.02) and hematocrit percentage (23.2 vs. 24.5; P = 0.02) were greater for low than high RFI animals.

CONCLUSIONS

Evidence is provided that feed efficiency is associated with HPA axis function and susceptibility to stress, and responsiveness of the HPA axis is likely to contribute to appreciable variation in the efficiency feed utilisation of cattle.

Modeling the lowest-cost splitting of a herd of cows by optimizing a cost function

Animals live in groups to defend against predation and to obtain food. However, for some animals-especially ones that spend long periods of time feeding-there are costs if a group chooses to move on before their nutritional needs are satisfied. If the conflict between feeding and keeping up with a group becomes too large, it may be advantageous for some groups of animals to split into subgroups with similar nutritional needs. We model the costs and benefits of splitting in a herd of cows using a cost function that quantifies individual variation in hunger, desire to lie down, and predation risk. We model the costs associated with hunger and lying desire as the standard deviations of individuals within a group, and we model predation risk as an inverse exponential function of the group size. We minimize the cost function over all plausible groups that can arise from a given herd and study the dynamics of group splitting. We examine how the cow dynamics and cost function depend on the parameters in the model and consider two biologically-motivated examples: (1) group switching and group fission in a herd of relatively homogeneous cows, and (2) a herd with an equal number of adult males (larger animals) and adult females (smaller animals).

Muddy conditions reduce hygiene and lying time in dairy cattle and increase time spent on concrete

Dairy cattle spend less time lying and show signs of increased stress when housed in rainy and windy conditions, but no work has separated the effects of exposure to inclement weather from muddy conditions underfoot. Our objective was to evaluate the effects of muddy conditions alone on lying behavior, hygiene, and physiological responses. We housed pairs of pregnant, nonlactating dairy cattle (n = 12; 6 primigravid heifers, 6 multiparous cows) in enclosed pens with dirt floors and a concrete feed apron. Cattle were exposed to 3 levels of soil moisture: 90 (dry), 74 (muddy), or 67% (very muddy) dry matter for 5 d each in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square design. Lying time was measured on all days with data loggers, and lying locations and postures were recorded on the final day of each treatment. Before and after each treatment, blood samples were collected, and the percentage of dirty surface area was measured on the udder, hind leg, and side of each animal. Cattle spent less time lying down in muddier conditions, especially in the first 24 h of exposure, when cows and heifers spent only 3.2 and 5.8 h, respectively, lying down in the muddiest treatment compared with 12.5 and 12.7 h on dry soil. When the soil was dry, cattle never chose to lie down on concrete, but in muddier conditions they spent a greater proportion of their lying time on concrete (mean ± SE: 56 ± 14 and 10 ± 8% in the very muddy and muddy treatments, respectively). The shift in lying location was more marked for heifers, and all 6 spent ≥87% of their lying time on concrete in the muddiest treatment. When cattle chose to lie down on wetter soil, they limited the surface area exposed to their surroundings by tucking their legs beneath their bodies (mean ± SE: 30 ± 11, 15 ± 4, and 5 ± 2% of lying observations in the very muddy, muddy, and dry treatments, respectively). Despite cattle spending less time on wetter soil, all 3 measured body parts became dirtier in muddier conditions (1.4-, 1.6-, and 1.8-fold more on the leg, udder, and side, respectively, in the muddiest compared with the driest treatment). In addition, higher soil moisture levels resulted in greater reductions in white blood cell counts relative to baseline levels (-0.95, -0.43, and 0.34 × 10⁹/L relative to baseline levels in the very muddy, muddy, and dry treatments). Muddy conditions, even in the absence of wind or rain, are aversive for cattle and have negative implications for their welfare.