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Aghdash SN, Foroughi G. Chemical Kindling as an Experimental Model to Assess the Conventional Drugs in the Treatment of Post-traumatic Epilepsy. CNS & NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS DRUG TARGETS 2023; 22:1417-1428. [PMID: 36443981 DOI: 10.2174/1871527322666221128155813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality today, which will surpass many infectious diseases in the coming years/decades. Posttraumatic epilepsy (PTE) is one of the most common debilitating consequences of TBI. PTE is a secondary, acquired epilepsy that causes recurrent, spontaneous seizures more than a week after TBI. The extent of head injury in individuals who develop PTE is unknown; however, trauma is thought to account for 20% of symptomatic epilepsy worldwide. Understanding the mechanisms of epilepsy following TBI is crucial for the discovery of new anticonvulsant drugs for the treatment of PTE, as well as for improving the quality of life of patients with PTE. OBJECTIVE This review article explains the rationale for the usage of a chemical model to access new treatments for post-traumatic epilepsy. RESULTS There are multiple methods to control and manage PTE. The essential and available remedy for the management of epilepsy is the use of antiepileptic drugs. Antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) decrease the frequency of seizures without affecting the disease's causality. Antiepileptic drugs are administrated for the prevention and treatment of PTE; however, 30% of epilepsy patients are drug-resistant, and AED side effects are significant in PTE patients. There are different types of animal models, such as the liquid percussion model, intracortical ferric chloride injection, and cortical subincision model, to study PTE and neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the development of epilepsy after head injury. However, these animal models do not easily mimic the pathological events occurring in epilepsy. Therefore, animal models of PTE are an inappropriate tool for screening new and putatively effective AEDs. Chemical kindling is the most common animal model used to study epilepsy. There is a strong similarity between the kindling model and different types of human epilepsy. CONCLUSION Today, researchers use experimental animal models to evaluate new anticonvulsant drugs. The chemical kindling models, such as pentylenetetrazol, bicuculline, and picrotoxin-induced seizures, are important experimental models to analyze the impact of putative antiepileptic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simin Namvar Aghdash
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Basic Sciences, Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Golsa Foroughi
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Basic Sciences, Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University, Tabriz, Iran
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Tahmasebi S, Oryan S, Mohajerani HR, Akbari N, Palizvan MR. Probiotics and Nigella sativa extract supplementation improved behavioral and electrophysiological effects of PTZ-induced chemical kindling in rats. Epilepsy Behav 2020; 104:106897. [PMID: 32028126 DOI: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2019.106897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2019] [Revised: 10/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Epilepsy is a most common neurological disorder that has negative effects on cognition. In the present study, we investigated the protective effect of Nigella sativa (NS) and probiotics on seizure activity, cognitive performance, and synaptic plasticity in pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) kindling model of epilepsy. METHODS One hundred and forty-four rats were divided into 2 experiments: In experiment 1, animals were grouped and treated as follows: 1) control (PTZ + saline), 2) NS treatment, 3) probiotic treatment, and 4) NS and probiotic treatment. Six weeks after the treatment, PTZ kindling were performed, and 48 h after kindling, spatial learning and memory were measured in Morris water maze (MWM) test. Animals in experiment 2 received the same treatment as experiment 1: in control nonkindled groups, control animals were treated with probiotics, NS, and probiotics + NS. Six weeks after the treatment, PTZ kindling were performed, and 48 h after kindling, field potentials were recorded from the dentate gyrus area of the hippocampus; synaptic transmission and long-term potentiation (LTP) was measured. RESULTS The results showed that the probiotic and NS supplementation significantly reduces kindling development so that animals in PTZ + NS + probiotic did not show full kindling. In MWM test, the escape latency and traveled path in the kindled group were significantly higher than the control group. In PTZ + NS + probiotics, these parameters were significantly lower than those in the PTZ + saline group. Adding probiotic and NS supplementation significantly reduced population spike (PS)-LTP as compared with the PTZ + saline group. CONCLUSION Probiotic and NS supplementation have some protection against seizure, seizure-induced cognitive impairment, and hippocampal LTP in kindled rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saeed Tahmasebi
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shahrbanoo Oryan
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran; Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Kharazmy University, Tehran, Iran.
| | | | - Neda Akbari
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Islamic Azad University, Arak, Iran
| | - Mohammad Reza Palizvan
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran.
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Cheng H, Wang Y, Chen J, Chen Z. The piriform cortex in epilepsy: What we learn from the kindling model. Exp Neurol 2020; 324:113137. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2019.113137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Samokhina E, Samokhin A. Neuropathological profile of the pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) kindling model. Int J Neurosci 2018; 128:1086-1096. [DOI: 10.1080/00207454.2018.1481064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- E. Samokhina
- Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics, Pushchino, Russia
| | - Alexander Samokhin
- Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Cell Biophysics, Pushchino, Russia
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Wlaź P, Poleszak E, Serefko A, Wlaź A, Rundfeldt C. Anxiogenic- and antidepressant-like behavior in corneally kindled rats. Pharmacol Rep 2015; 67:349-52. [PMID: 25712662 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharep.2014.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2014] [Revised: 10/14/2014] [Accepted: 10/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anxiety and depression affect epileptic patients much more often than individuals from the general population. We were interested in whether corneal kindling in rats, which is a model of complex partial seizures with secondary generalization, would influence animal behavior in models of anxiety and depression. METHODS Kindling was achieved by transcorneal electric stimulation and fully kindled rats were used in this study. Kindled and sham-stimulated rats were subjected to the elevated plus maze and forced swim test which are believed to be predictive models for anxiety and depression in humans, respectively. RESULTS Kindling significantly decreased the percentage of time spent by the rats in open arms relative to time spent in open plus closed arms and it reduced immobility time in the swim test as compared with sham-stimulated rats. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that corneal kindling produces antidepressant- and anxiety-like effects in rats and it may be a useful model to study epilepsy-associated anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Wlaź
- Department of Animal Physiology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland.
| | - Ewa Poleszak
- Chair and Department of Applied Pharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Anna Serefko
- Chair and Department of Applied Pharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Wlaź
- Department of Pathophysiology, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
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Contó MB, de Carvalho JGB, Venditti MAC. Rats With Different Thresholds to Clonic Convulsions Induced by DMCM Differ in the Binding of [3H]-MK-801 and [3H]-Ouabain in the Membranes of Brain Regions. Neurochem Res 2012; 37:1442-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s11064-012-0730-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2011] [Revised: 01/25/2012] [Accepted: 02/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures affect binding site densities for GABA, glutamate and adenosine receptors in the rat brain. Neuroscience 2009; 163:490-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.03.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2008] [Revised: 02/24/2009] [Accepted: 03/19/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Heldt SA, Ressler KJ. Training-induced changes in the expression of GABAA-associated genes in the amygdala after the acquisition and extinction of Pavlovian fear. Eur J Neurosci 2008; 26:3631-44. [PMID: 18088283 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05970.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Previous work suggests the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic system may be dynamically regulated during emotional learning. In the current study we examined training-induced changes in the expression of GABA(A)-related genes and the binding of GABA receptor radioligands in the amygdala after the acquisition and extinction of Pavlovian fear. Using in situ hybridization, we examined the expression pattern changes of mRNAs for GABAergic markers in the lateral, basolateral and central subdivisions of the amygdala in C57Bl/6J mice. These markers included GABA-synthesizing enzymes (GAD67 and GAD65), major GABA(A) receptor subunits (alpha1, alpha2, alpha3, alpha5, beta2 and gamma2) and the expression of mRNAs that are involved in a variety of GABA-related intracellular processes, including GABA transporter-1 (GAT1), GABA(A) receptor-associated protein and the GABA(A) clustering protein, gephyrin. With fear conditioning, we found decreased mRNA levels of alpha1, alpha5 and GAD67, as well as deceased benzodiazepine binding in the amygdala. Fear extinction induced an increase in mRNA levels of alpha2, beta2, GAD67 and gephyrin, as well as a decrease in GAT1. Together, these findings indicate that the acquisition of fear induced a downregulation of mRNA markers related to a decrease in amygdala GABAergic function, whereas the acquisition of fear extinction produced an upregulation of GABAergic markers related to enhanced GABAergic transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott A Heldt
- Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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Altrup U, Häder M, Cáceres JLH, Malcharek S, Meyer M, Galla HJ. Epileptogenic drugs in a model nervous system: Electrophysiological effects and incorporation into a phospholipid layer. Brain Res 2006; 1122:65-77. [PMID: 17049497 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2006] [Revised: 08/28/2006] [Accepted: 09/06/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Mechanisms of epileptiform activity in a model nervous system (buccal ganglia of Helix pomatia) are presented. The ganglia contain the identified giant neurons B1 through B4. For epileptiform activity, pentylenetetrazol (1 mmol/L to 40 mmol/L) or etomidate (12.5 micromol/L to 500 micromol/L) were applied. Membrane pressure was measured using a Wilhelmy film balance. In electrophysiological experiments, both drugs induced several effects in all studied neurons: membrane resistance increased, down-stroke of action potentials declined, and all types of chemical synaptic potentials decreased (the latter concerns pentylenetetrazol only). The threshold was 1 mmol/L of pentylenetetrazol and 12.5 micromol/L of etomidate. Epileptiform potentials developed in neurons that had expressed the membrane mechanisms underlying pacemaker potentials. The threshold of this development was again 1 mmol/L of pentylenetetrazol and 12.5 micromol/L of etomidate. Epileptiform depolarizations appeared with 40 mmol/L of pentylenetetrazol and 500 micromol/L of etomidate. In biochemical experiments, both drugs incorporated into an artificial phospholipids membrane and increased pressure in the membrane. The threshold of pressure increase was 1 mmol/L of pentylenetetrazol and 12.5 micromol/L of etomidate. Pressure increased dose-dependently and was 69% and 63% above starting pressure of 10 mN/m with epileptogenic concentrations of pentylenetetrazol (40 mmol/L) and of etomidate (500 micromol/L), respectively. It is postulated that amphiphilic substances incorporate into cell membranes and increase intramembranous pressure, and that this disturbs several membrane processes mechanically and leads to epileptic depolarizations in pacemaker neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrich Altrup
- Institute of Experimental Epilepsy Research, University of Münster, Hüfferstr. 68, 48149 Münster, Germany.
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Becker A, Schmitz M, Grecksch G. Kindling modifies morphine, cocaine and ethanol place preference. Exp Brain Res 2005; 168:33-40. [PMID: 16096784 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-005-0081-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2005] [Accepted: 06/08/2005] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Brailowsky and Garcia (1999) proposed the existence of a relationship between epilepsy and addiction. To prove this hypothesis, pentylenetetrazol kindled rats were tested in the conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm for their reaction to various addictive drugs with different modes of action (morphine, cocaine and ethanol). In separate experiments, locomotor activity and body temperature after application of the same drugs were tested in kindled and non-kindled rats. In the CPP experiment there were significant differences between both groups of rats. Non-kindled animals showed place preference to morphine (5.0 mg/kg) or cocaine (20.0 mg/kg). This reaction was abolished in the kindled rats. Moreover, control rats demonstrated aversion to 2.0 g/kg ethanol. However, ethanol aversion was not detectable in kindled rats. Moreover, there was no difference between non-kindled and kindled rats in locomotor activity and body temperature after morphine (1.0 and 5.0 mg/kg), cocaine (10.0 and 20.0 mg/kg), or ethanol (0.5 and 2.0 g/kg) application. This suggests alterations in reward systems as a consequence of kindling. It is hypothesised that GABAergic neurones in the ventral tegmental area might play a major role in the alterations found.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axel Becker
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Faculty of Medicine, Leipziger Str. 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany.
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Kikuchi S, Iwasa H, Sato T. Lasting changes in NMDAR1 mRNA level in various regions of cerebral cortex in epileptogenesis of amygdaloid-kindled rat. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2000; 54:573-7. [PMID: 11043808 DOI: 10.1046/j.1440-1819.2000.00755.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The involvement of NMDA receptor subunit, NR1, with kindling phenomenon has been reported, but the role of NR1 in epileptogenesis is still unknown. We have examined the expression levels of NR1 mRNA in the cerebral cortices of amygdaloid-kindled rats. Northern blot analysis showed a significant increase in NR1 mRNA expression level in the ipsilateral frontal and temporal cortices at 4 weeks after the last generalized seizure. At the same time, NR1 mRNA decreased in the bilateral piriform cortices. These data suggest that NR1-mediated transmission may have an impact in the neurobiological basis of enduring epileptogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Kikuchi
- Division of Drug Dependence and Psychotropic Drug Clinical Research, National Institute of Mental Health, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Ichikawa, Japan.
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Davidson M, Chen W, Wilce PA. Behavioral analysis of PTZ-kindled rats after acute and chronic ethanol treatments. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1999; 64:7-13. [PMID: 10494991 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-3057(99)00093-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The present study was designed to examine the response of PTZ-kindled and saline-injected animals to both acute and chronic ethanol treatment. Acute injection of ethanol (3.0 g/kg; IP) resulted in a rapid onset of loss of righting reflex (LORR) in both PTZ-kindled and saline-injected animals. However, the PTZ-kindled animals recovered from LORR significantly more quickly than control animals. Using a tilt-plane test as a measure of motor incoordination, the PTZ-kindled animals had significantly less motor incoordination compared to controls. Blood alcohol levels (BAL) were not significantly different between the groups. We also compared the degree of tolerance and dependence in chronic ethanol-treated, PTZ-kindled, and control animals. PTZ-kindled, saline-injected and naive control animals were chronically treated with ethanol vapor. The PTZ-kindled group tolerated high vapor concentrations (in terms of food consumed/rat) and, at the end of the treatment, displayed intoxication characteristics different from those of the control groups despite having similar blood alcohol levels. The PTZ-kindled group also displayed withdrawal behavior that was similar to a group of ethanol-treated animals that had experienced a prior cycle of dependency and withdrawal. These data show many intriguing similarities between animals that are PTZ-kindled and chronically treated with ethanol and suggest the use of PTZ-kindled animals as a model for alcohol withdrawal kindling.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Davidson
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Queensland, Australia
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