Neuroendocrine perspectives on social attachment and love

Oxytocin enhances group-based guilt in high moral disengagement individuals through increased moral responsibility

Group-based guilt (collective guilt) refers to the negative emotions experienced when group members violate moral standards and can motivate prosocial behavior. Individuals exhibiting high levels of moral disengagement are prone to engaging in unethical conduct without experience of guilt, thereby prolonging or exacerbating conflicts and hindering conflict resolution. Oxytocin is believed to play key role in shaping social cognition and behaviors associated with morality and prosociality. So, this study (N = 79) explores oxytocin's potential to enhance group-based guilt and compensation for victims among individuals with high moral disengagement. Employing a randomized placebo-controlled design, participants received either oxytocin or placebo before undertaking a task designed to induce group-based guilt, during which they made decisions regarding the allocation of money to victims. Results revealed that participants with high moral disengagement who received oxytocin perceived higher levels of moral responsibility, experienced increased group-based guilt, and allocated significantly more money to victims compared to those who received the placebo. These findings suggested that oxytocin holds promise as an intervention to mitigate moral disengagement and foster moral behavior in individuals predisposed to avoiding responsibility and guilt feelings.

On social health: history, conceptualization, and population patterning

We propose a psychologically-informed concept of social health to join physical and mental components in a more comprehensive assessment of human health. Although there is an extensive literature on the importance of social relationships to health, a theoretical framework is needed to coalesce this work into a codified conceptualisation of social health, defined here as adequate quantity and quality of relationships in a particular context to meet an individual's need for meaningful human connection. Informing this novel conceptualisation, we outline eight key propositions to guide future research and theory on social health, including five propositions focused on the conceptualisation of social health and three focused on its population patterning. The former five propositions include that social health is an outcome in its own right, that health interventions can have divergent effects on social versus physical and mental aspects of health, that social health has independent effects on quality of life, that it is a dynamic and contextual construct, and that it is embedded and encoded in the human body (and mind). The utility of the social health concept is further revealed in its significance for understanding and addressing population health concerns, such as health inequalities experienced by marginalised groups.

A Hypothalamic Perspective of Human Socioemotional Behavior

Historical evidence from stimulation and lesion studies in animals and humans demonstrated a close association between the hypothalamus and typical and atypical socioemotional behavior. A central hypothalamic contribution to regulation of socioemotional responses was also provided indirectly by studies on oxytocin and arginine vasopressin. However, a limited number of studies have so far directly investigated the contribution of the hypothalamus in human socioemotional behavior. To reconsider the functional role of the evolutionarily conserved hypothalamic region in regulating human social behavior, here I provide a synthesis of neuroimaging investigations showing that the hypothalamus is involved in multiple and diverse facets of human socioemotional behavior through widespread functional interactions with other cortical and subcortical regions. These neuroimaging findings are then integrated with recent optogenetics studies in animals demonstrating that the hypothalamus plays a more active role in eliciting socioemotional responses and is not simply a downstream effector of higher-level brain systems. Building on the aforementioned evidence, the hypothalamus is argued to substantially contribute to a continuum of human socioemotional behaviors promoting survival and preservation of the species that extends from exploratory and approaching responses facilitating social bonding to aggressive and avoidance responses aimed to protect and defend formed relationships.

Neuropeptides affecting social behavior in mammals: Oxytocin

Oxytocin (OXT), a neuropeptide consisting of only nine amino acids, is synthesized in the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus. Although OXT is best known for its role in lactation and parturition, recent research has shown that it also has a significant impact on social behaviors in mammals. However, a comprehensive review of this topic is still lacking. In this paper, we systematically reviewed the effects of OXT on social behavior in mammals. These effects of OXT from the perspective of five key behavioral dimensions were summarized: parental behavior, anxiety, aggression, attachment, and empathy. To date, researchers have agreed that OXT plays a positive regulatory role in a wide range of social behaviors, but there have been controversially reported results. In this review, we have provided a detailed panorama of the role of OXT in social behavior and, for the first time, delved into the underlying regulatory mechanisms, which may help better understand the multifaceted role of OXT. Levels of OXT in previous human studies were also summarized to provide insights for diagnosis of mental disorders.

Neuromodulation of safety and surprise in the early stages of infant development: affective homeostatic regulation in bodily and mental functions

Developing a sense of internal safety and security depends mainly on others: numerous neuromodulators play a significant role in the homeostatic process, regulating the importance of proximity to a caregiver and experiencing feelings that enable us to regulate our interdependence with our conspecifics since birth. This array of neurofunctional structures have been called the SEPARATION DISTRESS system (now more commonly known as the PANIC/ GRIEF system). This emotional system is mainly involved in the production of depressive symptoms. The disruption of this essential emotional balance leads to the onset of feelings of panic followed by depression. We will focus on the neuropeptides that play a crucial role in social approach behavior in mammals, which enhance prosocial behavior and facilitate the consolidation of social bonds. We propose that most prosocial behaviors are regulated through the specific neuromodulators acting on salient intersubjective stimuli, reflecting an increased sense of inner confidence (safety) in social relationships. This review considers the neurofunctional link between the feelings that may ultimately be at the base of a sense of inner safety and the central neuromodulatory systems. This link may shed light on the clinical implications for the development of early mother-infant bonding and the depressive clinical consequences when this bond is disrupted, such as in post-partum depression, depressive feelings connected to, addiction, neurofunctional disorders, and psychological trauma.

Intense Body Contact Increases Homosexual Pair Bond Stability in Female Japanese Macaques (Macaca fuscata)

The Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) has become a key species for studying homosexual behavior over recent decades. With the non-conceptive nature, their same-sex consortships illustrate that individual partner preferences can exist beyond direct reproductive benefits or apparent sociosexual strategies. An open question is whether the behavior shared between partners in consortship directly affects their choice to remain with a partner. With this study, we examined behavioral aspects underlying consortship temporal patterns in these promiscuous and bisexual primates. While these patterns could be relevant in both homo- and heterosexual consortships, our study primarily focused on female-female pairs. We hypothesized that the stability of consortships (duration and occurrence) is influenced by a pair's sexual behavior, mutual sexual stimulation, and close affiliative inter-mount behaviors involving high-intensity body contact. A semi-free population of Japanese macaques was observed over one mating season. In total, 40 h of focal data on female-female consortship behaviors were analyzed. Forty-six percent of all sexually mature females engaged in homosexual interactions. Our behavioral analyses of female-female pairs found that close body contact, rather than grooming or sexual interactions, was correlated with the stability of homosexual consortships. The greater the amount of huddling and embracing a pair engaged in, the more likely they were to stay together and reunite again. However, the frequency of mounting, rubbing or thrusting had no discernable effect on consortship stability. The results of this study thus add important knowledge to partner qualities in promiscuous primates as well as to inter-group differences of homosexual behavior in Japanese macaques.

Prairie voles as a model for adaptive reward remodeling following loss of a bonded partner

Loss of a loved one is a painful event that substantially elevates the risk for physical and mental illness and impaired daily function. Socially monogamous prairie voles are laboratory-amenable rodents that form life-long pair bonds and exhibit distress upon partner separation, mirroring phenotypes seen in humans. These attributes make voles an excellent model for studying the biology of loss. In this review, we highlight parallels between humans and prairie voles, focusing on reward system engagement during pair bonding and loss. As yearning is a unique feature that differentiates loss from other negative mental states, we posit a model in which the homeostatic reward mechanisms that help to maintain bonds are disrupted upon loss, resulting in yearning and other negative impacts. Finally, we synthesize studies in humans and voles that delineate the remodeling of reward systems during loss adaptation. The stalling of these processes likely contributes to prolonged grief disorder, a diagnosis recently added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Psychiatry.

Protocol for a pilot study assessing a virtual mindfulness intervention for postpartum African American women

Elevated perinatal depressive symptoms are more common among disadvantaged African American women, and they are almost four times as likely to have postpartum posttraumatic stress compared to white women. For new mothers, depressive symptoms and posttraumatic stress can lead to negative parenting, poor mother-infant bonding, and delayed infant development. For African American women, a culturally adapted mindfulness-based intervention offers great potential as an acceptable approach to reduce psycho-behavioral symptoms and improve mother-infant interactions (i.e., bonding). Additionally, it is critical that mindfulness interventions consider time constraints of new mothers, provide accessible intervention delivery, address parenting, and consider the challenges of caring for an infant. Given these considerations, we describe a pilot research protocol in which we evaluate a culturally adapted mindfulness program: Mindfulness for African Americans Postpartum (MAAP). The intervention is based upon Kabat-Zinn's Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction program, but is adapted to include culturally relevant concepts of spirituality, inter-dependence, self-empowerment, and storytelling, which are salient to African American culture. To accommodate the needs of new mothers, a certified mindfulness interventionist delivers each session virtually using Zoom. The investigation uses a randomized controlled design in which African American women within 12 months of giving birth are randomized either to the MAAP intervention or to an Education Program. The primary aim is to determine the extent to which the MAAP intervention decreases maternal psycho-behavioral symptoms (perceived stress, depressive symptoms, anxiety, poor sleep, posttraumatic stress, and fatigue) and improves mother-infant bonding. A secondary aim is to explore the effects of MAAP on proinflammatory cytokines and oxytocin. Culturally adapted mindfulness interventions delivered virtually will make mindfulness more accessible and meaningful to populations, like African American new mothers, who are at higher risk for postpartum mood disorders and poor infant outcomes.

The effects of intranasal oxytocin on the efficacy of psychotherapy for major depressive disorder: a pilot randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Although both pharmacotherapy and psychological treatments are considered to be efficacious in the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD), one third of patients do not respond to treatment and many experience residual symptoms post-treatment. In this double-blind placebo-controlled randomized control trial (RCT), we assessed whether intranasal oxytocin (OT) augments the therapeutic efficacy of psychotherapy for MDD and improves the therapeutic alliance.

METHODS

Twenty-three volunteers (12 female) with MDD underwent 16 sessions of interpersonal therapy. Prior to each session, volunteers self-administered 24 International Units of intranasal OT (n = 12; Syntocinon) or placebo (n = 11). Depressive symptoms were assessed with the Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology at pre- and post-treatment, and at a six month follow-up.

RESULTS

Multilevel modeling found a significant effect of OT on the negative slope of depressive symptoms over time (p < 0.05), with medium-large effect sizes at post-treatment (Cohen's d = 0.75) and follow-up (Cohen's d = 0.82). Drug intervention also predicted the intercept when examining the weekly ratings of the therapeutic alliance (p < 0.05), such that volunteers receiving OT, relative to placebo, reported improved therapeutic alliance at session 1. The agreement of goals between therapists and participants, a facet of the therapeutic alliance, mediated the relationship between drug intervention and clinical outcome.

CONCLUSION

In this pilot study, the administration of intranasal OT, relative to placebo, improved the therapeutic alliance at the beginning of therapy and therapeutic efficacy of psychotherapy in persons with MDD. Future RCTs should attempt to replicate these findings in larger samples with different therapeutic modalities (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT02405715).

Behaviour Indicators of Animal Welfare in Purebred and Crossbred Yearling Beef Reared in Optimal Environmental Conditions

The aim of this study was to monitor the behaviour of purebred and crossbred beef cattle reared in the same optimal environmental conditions according to Classyfarm®. Thirty-yearling beef 11.5 months old, including 10 Limousines (LMS), 10 Sardo-Bruna (SRB), and 10 crossbred Limousine × Sardo-Bruna (LMS × SRB), balanced for sex and body weight, were used. Animals were evaluated for five months by two trained operators by SCAN ("sternal resting", "lateral resting", " central or peripheral position in the pen", standing", "walking", "feeding", "drinking", and "ruminating) and FOCUS ("displacement for space", "displacement for feed or water", "play-fighting", "self-grooming", "allo-grooming", "stereotyping", and "mounting") protocols. Feeding behaviour was monitored by a CCTV system. The application of the SCAN sampling evidenced that SRB animals preferred the "standing" activity over the LMS animals, while the LMS × SRB did not differ from them. The "standing" and " ruminating "activities were observed mostly in females than males (p < 0.05). For behaviour parameters assessed by the FOCUS methodology, the n-events of "allo-grooming" were higher (p < 0.05) in SRB than in LMS and LMS × SRB genetic types. Males showed higher (p < 0.05) n-events than females for "play-fighting". For feeding behaviour, the "eating concentrate" activity (expressed as n-events) was higher (p < 0.05) in SRB than LMS × SRB and LMS being intermediate (p < 0.05). The duration of "eating concentrate" (expressed in minutes) was higher (p < 0.05) in females than males. In conclusion, behaviour indicators of animal welfare did not evidence substantial differences among genetic types and between sexes reared in the same "optimal" environmental conditions. Female beef and the autochthon's cattle breed of Sardinia, although typically hardy, showed a wide behavioural repertoire.

Understanding the Biological Relationship between Migraine and Depression

Migraine is a highly prevalent neurological disorder. Among the risk factors identified, psychiatric comorbidities, such as depression, seem to play an important role in its onset and clinical course. Patients with migraine are 2.5 times more likely to develop a depressive disorder; this risk becomes even higher in patients suffering from chronic migraine or migraine with aura. This relationship is bidirectional, since depression also predicts an earlier/worse onset of migraine, increasing the risk of migraine chronicity and, consequently, requiring a higher healthcare expenditure compared to migraine alone. All these data suggest that migraine and depression may share overlapping biological mechanisms. Herein, this review explores this topic in further detail: firstly, by introducing the common epidemiological and risk factors for this comorbidity; secondly, by focusing on providing the cumulative evidence of common biological aspects, with a particular emphasis on the serotoninergic system, neuropeptides such as calcitonin-gene-related peptide (CGRP), pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP), substance P, neuropeptide Y and orexins, sexual hormones, and the immune system; lastly, by remarking on the future challenges required to elucidate the etiopathological mechanisms of migraine and depression and providing updated information regarding new key targets for the pharmacological treatment of these clinical entities.

The Endogenous Opioid System as a Pathway of Positive Emotions

Pleasant emotions take a variety of forms and are a key part of the human experience. Although negative emotions have often been a focus of research, positive emotions, e.g., joy, pleasure, and love, have recently gained more attention. Each of these emotions is rich and complex in its own right. However, positive emotions appear to serve key evolutionary functions, which are mediated by complex biological substrates. This chapter summarizes key research and explores the biological underpinnings of positive emotions, with an emphasis on the roles that endogenous opioids play in the experience, expression, and development of positive emotions. The necessity of emphasizing positive emotions in research is also discussed.

Characterizing stress during animal interaction: a focus on the human endocrine response during equine-assisted services

Repeated stresses applied to the rider may contribute to the documented physical and psychosocial outcomes from equine-assisted services. In this brief review, a summary of neuroendocrine markers of stress, including immunoglobulin A, serotonin, cortisol, progesterone, and oxytocin, is presented within the context of the physiology of stress modulation. Results are mixed with regard to the effects of these hormones on rider physiology before, during, and after equine-assisted services. However, some results from existing studies are promising with regard to the attenuation of stress. Future research should include a cross-disciplinary approach when conducting well-controlled studies with proper treatment and experimental fidelity, while also considering exogenous and endogenous factors that influence rider physiology.

Brain trust

This narrative describes a personal journey that led to the discovery of a profound connection between microbial symbionts and oxytocin. Pivotal oxytocin discoveries began to emerge in 2011 while this researcher's multidisciplinary team explored gut microbial priming of the immune system and perinatal health. Inspired by oxytocin's role in early life events of milk release, neural connections, and social bonding, the team hypothesized a symbiotic relationship between microbes and oxytocin. Scientific experiments demonstrated that specific milk-borne microbes boosted oxytocin levels through a vagus nerve-mediated gut-brain pathway, affecting immune functions and wound healing capacity in the host animal. The exploration then expanded to microbial impacts on reproductive fitness, body weight, and even mental health. Overarching hypotheses envisioned a nurturing symbiosis promoting survival and societal advancement. Ultimately, this oxytocin-mediated partnership between microbes and mammals is portrayed as a harmonious legacy of neurological stability, empathy, and universal wisdom, transcending generations. The author's personal journey underscores the beauty and inspiration found in her scientific exploration.

Romantic love evolved by co-opting mother-infant bonding

For 25 years, the predominant evolutionary theory of romantic love has been Fisher's theory of independent emotion systems. That theory suggests that sex drive, romantic attraction (romantic love), and attachment are associated with distinct neurobiological and endocrinological systems which evolved independently of each other. Psychological and neurobiological evidence, however, suggest that a competing theory requires attention. A theory of co-opting mother-infant bonding sometime in the recent evolutionary history of humans may partially account for the evolution of romantic love. I present a case for this theory and a new approach to the science of romantic love drawing on human psychological, neurobiological, and (neuro)endocrinological studies as well as animal studies. The hope is that this theoretical review, along with other publications, will generate debate in the literature about the merits of the theory of co-opting mother-infant bonding and a new evolutionary approach to the science of romantic love.

Varied impacts of social relationships on neuroendocrine state

Social relationships, affiliative social attachments, are important for many species. The best studied types of relationships are monogamous pair bonds. However, it remains unclear how generalizable models of pair bonding are across types of social attachments. Zebra finches are a fascinating system to explore the neurobiology of social relationships because they form various adult bonds with both same- and opposite-sex partners. To test whether different bonds are supported by a single brain network, we quantified individuals' neuroendocrine state after either 24 h or 2 weeks of co-housing with a novel same- or opposite-sex partner. We defined neuroendocrine state by the expression of 22 genes related to 4 major signaling pathways (dopamine, steroid, nonapeptide, and opioid) in six brain regions associated with affiliation or communication [nucleus accumbens (NAc), nucleus taeniae of the amygdala (TnA), medial preoptic area (POM), and periaqueductal gray (PAG), ventral tegmental area, and auditory cortex]. Overall, we found dissociable effects of social contexts (same- or opposite-sex partnerships) and duration of co-housing. Social bonding impacted the neuroendocrine state of four regions in males (NAc, TnA, POM, and PAG) and three regions in females (NAc, TnA, and POM). Monogamous pair bonding specifically appeared to impact male NAc. However, the patterns of gene expression in zebra finches were different than has previously been reported in mammals. Together, our results support the view that there are numerous mechanisms regulating social relationships and highlight the need to further our understanding of how social interactions shape social bonds.

Oxytocin Levels in Children with Separation Anxiety and Their Mothers before and after Treatment

Objective

The purpose of this study was to compare the plasma oxytocin levels of children with separation anxiety disorder (SAD) and their mothers with those of healthy controls and to examine the relationship between oxytocin levels and changes in anxiety three months after treatment.

Methods

Thirty children aged 6-12 years with SAD, 30 healthy children, and mothers of both groups were included in the study. All cases were evaluated with semi-structured interview and Clinical Global Impression Scale. All cases and mothers of both groups filled out scales to determine various psychological variables (anxiety, depression, and attachment). The patient group children were re-evaluated with their mothers after three months, following treatment. Plasma oxytocin levels were evaluated from both groups and their mothers before and after treatment.

Results

The plasma oxytocin levels of mothers of children with SAD were significantly lower than those of the controls and increased significantly three months after their children were treated. No difference was found between the plasma oxytocin levels of children with SAD and the control group, and these children's levels decreased significantly after treatment. A positive correlation was found between changes in the plasma oxytocin levels of children with SAD and the change in anxiety scores.

Conclusion

Our results show that the change in plasma oxytocin levels in both children and mothers after treatment suggests that oxytocin may be important in the etiology of SAD.

Close encounters with oxytocin

The purpose of this narrative review is to use a personal perspective to describe unanticipated and pivotal findings that drew the author into the study oxytocin. Oxytocin was originally described as a "female reproductive hormone." However, supporting reproduction is only one of a myriad of functions now attributed to oxytocin. Oxytocin promotes survival and resilience in both sexes and across the lifespan, especially in the context of stress or trauma and helps to explain the health benefits of relationships. Oxytocin works in the context of individual histories and in conjunction with other molecules, as well as the autonomic nervous system and immune factors. The chemical properties of oxytocin make it biologically active, but difficult to measure. As a deeper understanding of the biology of oxytocin is emerging, we may use knowledge of the properties of oxytocin to uncover adaptive strategies that protect and heal in the face of stress and adversity in both males and females.

A test of the social behavior network reveals differential patterns of neural responses to social novelty in bonded, but not non-bonded, male prairie voles

The social behavior network (SBN) has provided a framework for understanding the neural control of social behavior. The original SBN hypothesis proposed this network modulates social behavior and should exhibit distinct patterns of neural activity across nodes, which correspond to distinct social contexts. Despite its tremendous impact on the field of social neuroscience, no study has directly tested this hypothesis. Thus, we assessed Fos responses across the SBN of male prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster). Virgin/non-bonded and pair bonded subjects were exposed to a sibling cagemate or pair bonded partner, novel female, novel male, novel meadow vole, novel object, or no stimulus. Inconsistent with the original SBN hypothesis, we did not find profoundly different patterns of neural responses across the SBN for different contexts, but instead found that the SBN generated significantly different patterns of activity in response to social novelty in pair bonded, but not non-bonded males. These findings suggest that non-bonded male prairie voles may perceive social novelty differently from pair bonded males or that SBN functionality undergoes substantial changes after pair bonding. This study reveals novel information about bond-dependent, context-specific neural responsivity in male prairie voles and suggests that the SBN may be particularly important for processing social salience. Further, our study suggests there is a need to reconceptualize the framework of how the SBN modulates social behavior.

Oxytocin as a Biomarker of Differential Effects to SPACE vs. CBT Treatment of Child Anxiety Disorders

OBJECTIVE

Two lines of research, on outcome moderators and on novel treatment targets, seek to improve the overall efficacy of child anxiety treatment, with mixed results. We propose that an integration of both lines of research can lead to improved treatment efficacy. In a first proof of concept of this approach, we studied whether the interaction between baseline levels and targeted changes in peripheral oxytocin (OT) can predict differential responses to two childhood anxiety treatments.

METHOD

A total of 124 mother-child dyads participated in the study. Children's salivary OT levels were measured at baseline and again, immediately after an experimental dyadic interaction in the lab. Dyads were subsequently randomized to receive one of two treatments, differing in their targets: SPACE (Supportive Parenting for Anxious Childhood Emotions) and CBT (cognitive-behavioral therapy). Treatment outcomes were assessed using the Childhood Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders scale, reported by both mother and child.

RESULTS

The findings suggest that in SPACE, where the mother is the main agent of change, higher baseline levels of child OT, coupled with increases in OT following a positive mother-child interaction, predicted greater treatment efficacy. By contrast, in CBT, where the child is the main agent of change, higher baseline levels of child OT, coupled with a decrease in OT following the interaction, predicted greater treatment efficacy.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings highlight the importance of the integration between moderators and targets of treatments for progress toward improving treatment efficacy through precision medicine.

Novel 31-kHz calls emitted by female Lewis rats during social isolation and social inequality conditions

Whether commonly used experimental animals show aversion toward inequality of social rewards, as humans do remains unknown. We examined whether rats emitted the 22-kHz distress calls under social reward inequality. Rats showed affiliative behavior for a specific human who repeatedly stroked and tickled them. When experimenter stroked another rat in front of them and during social isolation, these rats emitted novel calls with acoustic characteristics different from those of calls emitted under physical stress, namely air-puff. Under inequality conditions, rats emitted calls with higher frequency (∼31 kHz) and shorter duration (<0.5 s) than those emitted when receiving air-puff. However, with an affiliative human in front of them, the number of novel calls was lower and rats emitted 50-kHz calls, indicative of the appetitive state. These results indicate that rats distinguish between conditions of social reward inequality and the presence of an experimenter, and emit novel 31-kHz calls.

Adverse childhood experiences mediate the negative association between borderline personality disorder symptoms and plasma oxytocin

Background Interpersonal dysfunction is a core symptom of borderline personality disorder (BPD) and may be closely linked to adverse childhood experiences. According to a recent model on the pathology of BPD, the neuropeptide oxytocin might play an important role in the development and maintenance of the disorder. However, so far, only few studies with small adult samples have reported reduced baseline oxytocin levels in BPD that may be linked to adverse childhood experiences. Methods We examined baseline plasma oxytocin levels in 131 female patients with BPD and 124 non-BPD female controls across a large age span (12-50 years). Additionally, 113 female patients with less than five DSM-IV BPD features were included to examine the association between plasma oxytocin levels and the number of fulfilled BPD criteria. We also explored associations between plasma oxytocin and adverse childhood experiences as well as depressive symptoms in BPD. Results Patients with BPD had reduced plasma oxytocin levels compared to non-BPD controls and this was independent of age. Plasma oxytocin was negatively associated with the number of fulfilled BPD criteria. The exploratory regression model revealed no association between plasma oxytocin and depressive symptoms but an association between plasma oxytocin and adverse childhood experiences, which in fact mediated the relationship between BPD criteria und plasma oxytocin. Conclusion In a large sample of individuals with BPD across a large age span, our results replicate and extend previous reports of reduced plasma oxytocin levels that might be related to adverse childhood experiences thus providing further evidence for a prominent role of oxytocin in BPD.

Oxytocin neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus circuit-dependently regulates social behavior, which malfunctions in BTBR mouse model of autism

Oxytocin (OXT) a neuropeptide synthesized in the hypothalamic nuclei has a variety of function including socio-emotional processes in mammals. While the neural circuits and signaling pathways in central OXT converge in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN), we illuminate specific function of discrete PVN OXT circuits, which connect to the medial amygdala (MeA) and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BnST) in mouse models. The OXTPVN→BnST projections are innervated from entire portions of the PVN, while those OXTPVN→MeA projections are asymmetrically innervated from the posterior portion of the PVN. Compared with OXT neurons in B6 wild type mice, BTBR mice that are recognized as a behavior-based autism model exhibited defect in the OXTPVN→BnST projection. We demonstrate that chemogenetic activation of OXTPVN→MeA circuit enhances anxiety-like behavior and facilitates social approach behavior, while activation of OXTPVN→BnST circuit suppresses anxiety-like behavior along with inhibiting social approach. This chemogenetic manipulation on the OXTPVN→BnST circuit proves ineffective in BTBR mice. Accordingly, chemogenetic activation of OXTPVN neurons that stimulate both OXT circuits induces OXT receptor expressions in both MeA and BnST as with those by social encounter in B6 mice. The induction of OXT receptor genes in the BnST was not observed in BTBR mice. These data support the hypothesis that OXT circuits serve as a regulator for OXT signaling in PVN to control socio-emotional approach/avoidance behavior, and a defect of OXTPVN→BnST circuit contributes to autism-like social phenotypes in BTBR mice.

In individuals with Williams syndrome, dysregulation of methylation in non-coding regions of neuronal and oligodendrocyte DNA is associated with pathology and cortical development

Williams syndrome (WS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder caused by a heterozygous micro-deletion in the WS critical region (WSCR) and is characterized by hyper-sociability and neurocognitive abnormalities. Nonetheless, whether and to what extent WSCR deletion leads to epigenetic modifications in the brain and induces pathological outcomes remains largely unknown. By examining DNA methylation in frontal cortex, we revealed genome-wide disruption in the methylome of individuals with WS, as compared to typically developed (TD) controls. Surprisingly, differentially methylated sites were predominantly annotated as introns and intergenic loci and were found to be highly enriched around binding sites for transcription factors that regulate neuronal development, plasticity and cognition. Moreover, by utilizing enhancer-promoter interactome data, we confirmed that most of these loci function as active enhancers in the human brain or as target genes of transcriptional networks associated with myelination, oligodendrocyte (OL) differentiation, cognition and social behavior. Cell type-specific methylation analysis revealed aberrant patterns in the methylation of active enhancers in neurons and OLs, and important neuron-glia interactions that might be impaired in individuals with WS. Finally, comparison of methylation profiles from blood samples of individuals with WS and healthy controls, along with other data collected in this study, identified putative targets of endophenotypes associated with WS, which can be used to define brain-risk loci for WS outside the WSCR locus, as well as for other associated pathologies. In conclusion, our study illuminates the brain methylome landscape of individuals with WS and sheds light on how these aberrations might be involved in social behavior and physiological abnormalities. By extension, these results may lead to better diagnostics and more refined therapeutic targets for WS.

Oxytocin Levels Increase and Anxiety Decreases in Mothers Who Sing and Talk to Their Premature Infants during a Painful Procedure

(1) Background: Preterm infants spend their first weeks of life in the hospital partially separated from their parents and subjected to frequent potentially painful clinical procedures. Previous research has found that early vocal contact reduces infant pain perception while simultaneously increasing oxytocin (OXT) levels. The current study aims to assess the effect of maternal singing and speaking on mothers. (2) Methods: During a painful procedure over two days, twenty preterm infants were randomly exposed to their mother's live voice (speaking or singing). Maternal OXT levels were measured twice: before and after singing, as well as before and after speaking. The anxiety and resilience responses of mothers were studied before and after the two-day interventions, regardless of the speaking/singing condition. OXT levels in mothers increased in response to both singing and speech. Concurrently, anxiety levels decreased, but no significant effects on maternal resilience were found. (3) Conclusions: OXT could be identified as a key mechanism for anxiety regulation in parents, even in sensitive care situations, such as when their infant is in pain. Active involvement of parents in the care of their preterm infants can have a positive effect on their anxiety as well as potential benefits to their sensitivity and care abilities through OXT.

Serum oxytocin correlated with later logical memory in older Japanese women: A 7-year follow-up study

Objectives

This study aimed to investigate the longitudinal relationship between serum oxytocin and logical memory among older adults in rural Japan and clarify sex differences in this relationship.

Measurements

The first survey was conducted from October 2009 to March 2011 (Time 1) and the second from November 2016 to September 2017 (Time 2). The final analysis for Time 1 included 385 participants (median age 75 years, interquartile range [IQR] 70-81 years) and that for Time 2 included 76 participants (median age 80 years, IQR 76-83 years). We assessed cognition, logical memory, and living conditions, and measured serum oxytocin levels. Logical memory was evaluated using the Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised Logical Memory II delayed recall part A (LM II-DR). Serum oxytocin was measured using the enzyme immunoassay method.

Results

The median (IQR) oxytocin level among men (n = 20) was 34 (16-78) pg/mL at Time 1 and 53 (28-140) pg/mL at Time 2. The median (IQR) oxytocin level among women (n = 56) was 117 (35-412) pg/mL at Time 1 and 76 (32-145) pg/mL at Time 2. The median oxytocin level among women at Time 2 was significantly lower than that at Time 1 (p = 0.004). The multivariate analysis showed that for women, LM II-DR score at Time 2 was positively associated with oxytocin level at Time 1 (p = 0.042) and negatively associated with age (p = 0.02).

Conclusions

Our study suggests that maintaining high oxytocin levels in older women may prevent age-related decline in logical memory.

Sex matters: The impact of oxytocin on healthy conditions and psychiatric disorders

Oxytocin (OT) is involved in the regulation of physiological processes and emotional states, with increasing evidence for its beneficial actions being mediated by the autonomic and immune systems. Growing evidence suggests that OT plays a role in the pathophysiology of different psychiatric disorders. Given the limited information in humans the aim of this study was to retrospectively explore plasma OT levels in psychiatric patients, particularly focusing on sex-related differences, as compared with healthy controls. The patients studied here were divided into three groups diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or major depressive disorder (MDD). Plasma OT levels were significantly different between healthy men and women, with the latter showing higher values, while none of the three psychiatric groups showed sex-related differences in the parameters measured here. The intergroup analyses showed that the OT levels were significantly higher in OCD, lower in PTSD and even more reduced in MDD patients than in healthy subjects. These differences were also confirmed when gender was considered, with the exception of PTSD men, in whom OT levels were similar to those of healthy men. The present results indicated that OT levels were higher amongst healthy women than men, while a sex difference was less apparent or reversed in psychiatric patients. Reductions in sex differences in psychopathologies may be related to differential vulnerabilities in processes associated with basic adaptive and social functions.

Sex, love and oxytocin: Two metaphors and a molecule

Dozens of studies, most conducted in the last four decades, have implicated oxytocin, as well as vasopressin and their receptors, in processes that mediate selective sociality and the consequences of early experience. Oxytocin is critical for the capacity to experience emotional safety and healthy sexuality. Oxytocin also plays a central role in almost every aspect of physical and mental health, including the coordination of sociality and loving relationships with physiological reactions to challenges across the lifespan. Species, including prairie voles, that share with humans the capacity for selective social bonds have been a particularly rich source of insights into the behavioral importance of peptides. The purpose of this historical review is to describe the discovery of a central role for oxytocin in behavioral interactions associated with love, and in the capacity to use sociality to anticipate and cope with challenges across the lifespan - a process that here is called "sociostasis."

The modulation of emotional and social behaviors by oxytocin signaling in limbic network

Neuropeptides can exert volume modulation in neuronal networks, which account for a well-calibrated and fine-tuned regulation that depends on the sensory and behavioral contexts. For example, oxytocin (OT) and oxytocin receptor (OTR) trigger a signaling pattern encompassing intracellular cascades, synaptic plasticity, gene expression, and network regulation, that together function to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for sensory-dependent stress/threat and social responses. Activation of OTRs in emotional circuits within the limbic forebrain is necessary to acquire stress/threat responses. When emotional memories are retrieved, OTR-expressing cells act as gatekeepers of the threat response choice/discrimination. OT signaling has also been implicated in modulating social-exposure elicited responses in the neural circuits within the limbic forebrain. In this review, we describe the cellular and molecular mechanisms that underlie the neuromodulation by OT, and how OT signaling in specific neural circuits and cell populations mediate stress/threat and social behaviors. OT and downstream signaling cascades are heavily implicated in neuropsychiatric disorders characterized by emotional and social dysregulation. Thus, a mechanistic understanding of downstream cellular effects of OT in relevant cell types and neural circuits can help design effective intervention techniques for a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders.

Defining pain-validation: The importance of validation in reducing the stresses of chronic pain

Purpose

To validate an individual's feelings or behaviour is to sanction their thoughts or actions as worthy of social acceptance and support. In contrast, rejection of the individual's communicated experience indicates a denial of social acceptance, representing a potential survival threat. Pain-invalidation, though ill-defined, appears to be a fundamental component of psychosocial stress for people with chronic pain. As such, the aim of this paper was to define pain-validation and outline its importance for those with chronic pain.

Methods

The pain-validation construct was defined using themes inherent in the narratives of those with chronic pain, as identified in a previously published systematic search and thematic analysis, together with examination of additional literature on pain-validation in the clinical context.

Results

We present a construct definition, proposing that pain-validation must necessarily include: (i) belief that the pain experience is true for the individual, (ii) acceptability of the individual's expressions of pain, and (iii) communication of belief and acceptability to the individual experiencing pain. Further, we outline the importance of pain-validation as a protective factor and means of reducing many of the psychosocial stresses of chronic pain; for example, by indicating social support for pain-coping, buffering negative emotions, and re-enforcing unity and shared identity.

Implications

The role of pain-validation in the current era of pain management intervention is discussed. Adhering to interventions that involve cognitive and behavioural change is often difficult. Acknowledging and validating the acceptability of the patient's pain experience in the early stages of pain management may, therefore, be a key component of intervention that encourages compliance to the treatment plan and achieving therapeutic goals.

Nose-to-Brain Delivery of Therapeutic Peptides as Nasal Aerosols

Central nervous system (CNS) disorders, such as psychiatric disorders, neurodegeneration, chronic pain, stroke, brain tumor, spinal cord injury, and many other CNS diseases, would hugely benefit from specific and potent peptide pharmaceuticals and their low inherent toxicity. The delivery of peptides to the brain is challenging due to their low metabolic stability, which decreases their duration of action, poor penetration of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and their incompatibility with oral administration, typically resulting in the need for parenteral administration. These challenges limit peptides’ clinical application and explain the interest in alternative routes of peptide administration, particularly nose-to-brain (N-to-B) delivery, which allows protein and peptide drugs to reach the brain noninvasively. N-to-B delivery can be a convenient method for rapidly targeting the CNS, bypassing the BBB, and minimizing systemic exposure; the olfactory and trigeminal nerves provide a unique pathway to the brain and the external environment. This review highlights the intranasal delivery of drugs, focusing on peptide delivery, illustrating various clinical applications, nasal delivery devices, and the scope and limitations of this approach.

Oxytocin and testosterone administration amplify viewing preferences for sexual images in male rhesus macaques

Social stimuli, like faces, and sexual stimuli, like genitalia, spontaneously attract visual attention in both human and non-human primates. Social orienting behaviour is thought to be modulated by neuropeptides as well as sex hormones. Using a free viewing task in which paired images of monkey faces and anogenital regions were presented simultaneously, we found that male rhesus macaques overwhelmingly preferred to view images of anogenital regions over faces. They were more likely to make an initial gaze shift towards, and spent more time viewing, anogenital regions compared with faces, and this preference was accompanied by relatively constricted pupils. On face images, monkeys mostly fixated on the forehead and eyes. These viewing preferences were found for images of both males and females. Both oxytocin (OT), a neuropeptide linked to social bonding and affiliation, and testosterone (TE), a sex hormone implicated in mating and aggression, amplified the pre-existing orienting bias for female genitalia over female faces; neither treatment altered the viewing preference for male anogenital regions over male faces. Testosterone but not OT increased the probability of monkeys making the first gaze shift towards female anogenital rather than face pictures, with the strongest effects on anogenital images of young and unfamiliar females. Finally, both OT and TE promoted viewing of the forehead region of both female and male faces, which display sexual skins, but decreased the relative salience of the eyes of older males. Together, these results invite the hypothesis that both OT and TE regulate reproductive behaviours by acting as a gain control on the visual orienting network to increase attention to mating-relevant signals in the environment.

This article is part of the theme issue ‘Interplays between oxytocin and other neuromodulators in shaping complex social behaviours’.

Oxytocin and oxygen: the evolution of a solution to the ‘stress of life’

Oxytocin (OT) and the OT receptor occupy essential roles in our current understanding of mammalian evolution, survival, sociality and reproduction. This narrative review examines the hypothesis that many functions attributed to OT can be traced back to conditions on early Earth, including challenges associated with managing life in the presence of oxygen and other basic elements, including sulfur. OT regulates oxidative stress and inflammation especially through effects on the mitochondria. A related nonapeptide, vasopressin, as well as molecules in the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, including the corticotropin-releasing hormone family of molecules, have a broad set of functions that interact with OT. Interactions among these molecules have roles in the causes and consequence of social behaviour and the management of threat, fear and stress. Here, we discuss emerging evidence suggesting that unique properties of the OT system allowed vertebrates, and especially mammals, to manage over-reactivity to the ‘side effects’ of oxygen, including inflammation, oxidation and free radicals, while also supporting high levels of sociality and a perception of safety.

This article is part of the theme issue ‘Interplays between oxytocin and other neuromodulators in shaping complex social behaviours’.

Interactions between the κ opioid system, corticotropin-releasing hormone and oxytocin in partner loss

Selective adult social attachments, or ‘pair bonds’, represent central relationships for individuals in a number of social species, including humans. Loss of a pair mate has emotional consequences that may or may not diminish over time, and that often translate into impaired psychological and physical health. In this paper, we review the literature on the neuroendocrine mechanisms for the emotional consequences of partner loss, with a special focus on hypothesized interactions between oxytocin, corticotropin-releasing hormone and the κ opioid system.

This article is part of the theme issue ‘Interplays between oxytocin and other neuromodulators in shaping complex social behaviours’.

Integrative Model of Human-Animal Interactions: A One Health-One Welfare Systemic Approach to Studying HAI

The Integrative Model of Human-Animal Interactions (IMHAI) described herewith provides a conceptual framework for the study of interspecies interactions and aims to model the primary emotional processes involved in human-animal interactions. This model was developed from theoretical inputs from three fundamental disciplines for understanding interspecies interactions: neuroscience, psychology and ethology, with the objective of providing a transdisciplinary approach on which field professionals and researchers can build and collaborate. Seminal works in affective neuroscience offer a common basis between humans and animals and, as such, can be applied to the study of interspecies interactions from a One Health-One Welfare perspective. On the one hand, Jaak Panksepp's research revealed that primary/basic emotions originate in the deep subcortical regions of the brain and are shared by all mammals, including humans. On the other hand, several works in the field of neuroscience show that the basic physiological state is largely determined by the perception of safety. Thus, emotional expression reflects the state of an individual's permanent adaptation to ever-changing environmental demands. Based on this evidence and over 5 years of action research using grounded theory, alternating between research and practice, the IMHAI proposes a systemic approach to the study of primary-process emotional affects during interspecies social interactions, through the processes of emotional transfer, embodied communication and interactive emotional regulation. IMHAI aims to generate new hypotheses and predictions on affective behavior and interspecies communication. Application of such a model should promote risk prevention and the establishment of positive links between humans and animals thereby contributing to their respective wellbeing.

The onset of puberty in colony-housed male and female titi monkeys (Plecturocebus cupreus): Possible effects of oxytocin treatment during peri-adolescent development

Oxytocin has been used to treat neurodevelopmental conditions in adolescent patients but possible effects on reproductive development have not been well investigated. The effects of daily intra-nasal oxytocin treatment (12-18 months of age) on puberty and fertility were studied in colony-housed, male and female titi monkeys (Plecturocebus cupreus). Body weight, urinary conjugated pregnanes and estrogens (defining cyclicity) in females, and androgens and sperm in urine of in males, were measured from 1 to 3 years of age to detect puberty. Serum testosterone was also measured in males at 13, 23 and 33 months of age and hemi-castration at 3 years of age enabled assessment of testicular morphometry and oxytocin receptor expression. An oxytocin treatment*time interaction suggested a minor, transient suppression in weight gain after treatment ended. Note that females weighed 10% less across all ages. Oxytocin-treated females exhibited early, spurious ovulations but neither regular cyclicity (≈30 months) nor pregnancies were affected by treatment. Oxytocin did not affect the pubertal increase in urinary androgen or the first appearance of sperm, which occurred as early as 15 months of age. Treatment did delay the puberty-associated rise in serum testosterone in males. All males were pubertal by 22 months and all females by 32 months of age. Although no major male or female fertility outcome was observed, oxytocin demonstrated some physiological effects through a delay of testosterone secretion in males, induction of precocious ovulation in females, and a suppression of general weight gain for the months following treatment.

The effects of oxytocin and vasopressin administration on fathers' neural responses to infant crying: A randomized controlled within-subject study

In a randomized double-blind within-subject control study we investigated the effects of oxytocin and vasopressin administration on neural reactivity to infant cry sounds in 70 first-time fathers in the first year of fatherhood. Additionally, we examined whether effects of oxytocin and vasopressin administration on neural reactivity were moderated by fathers' early childhood experiences. Neural reactivity to infant cry sounds (versus control sounds) was measured using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Furthermore, participants reported on their childhood experiences of parental harsh discipline and parental love withdrawal. Whole brain analyses revealed no significant effect of vasopressin or oxytocin administration on neural activation in response to infant cry sounds. Region of interest analyses showed decreased amygdala activation in both the oxytocin condition and the vasopressin condition as compared to placebo. We found no moderating effects of fathers' early childhood experiences. Our findings suggest that oxytocin administration may decrease feelings of anxiety or aversion to a crying infant. Whether decreased amygdala activation after vasopressin administration might be explained by contextual factors (e.g., absence of high levels of threat, unfamiliarity of the infant) or represents an affiliative response to infant distress warrants further investigation. Findings of the present study showed that oxytocin and vasopressin are important hormones implicated in neural models of infant cry perception in fatherhood.

Functional Neuroimaging of Human Hypothalamus in Socioemotional Behavior: A Systematic Review

There exist extensive animal research and lesion studies in humans demonstrating a tight association between the hypothalamus and socioemotional behavior. However, human neuroimaging literature in this direction is still rather limited. In order to reexamine the functional role of this region in regulating human social behavior, we here provided a synthesis of neuroimaging studies showing hypothalamic activation during affiliative, cooperative interactions, and in relation to ticklish laughter and humor. In addition, studies reporting involvement of the hypothalamus during aggressive and antisocial interactions were also considered. Our systematic review revealed a growing number of investigations demonstrating that the evolutionary conserved hypothalamic neural circuity is involved in multiple and diverse aspects of human socioemotional behavior. On the basis of the observed heterogeneity of hypothalamus-mediated socioemotional responses, we concluded that the hypothalamus might play an extended functional role for species survival and preservation, ranging from exploratory and approaching behaviors promoting social interactions to aggressive and avoidance responses protecting and defending the established social bonds.

Electrophysiological Correlates of Romantic Love: A Review of EEG and ERP Studies with Beloved-Related Stimuli

Science is starting to unravel the neural basis of romantic love. The goal of this literature review was to identify and interpret the electrophysiological correlates of romantic love. Electroencephalography (EEG) and event-related potential (ERP) studies with a design that elicits romantic love feelings were included. The methods of previous EEG studies are too heterogeneous to draw conclusions. Multiple ERP studies, however, have shown that beloved stimuli elicit an enhanced late positive potential (LPP/P3/P300), which is not due to familiarity, positive valence, or objective beauty. This effect occurs in Western and Eastern cultures and for pictorial and verbal information, and results from bottom-up rather than top-down factors. Studies have also shown that beloved stimuli elicit an early posterior negativity (EPN), which also does not seem to be due to familiarity or positive valence. Data on earlier ERP components (P1, N1, P2, N170/VPP, N2) is scarce and mixed. Of course, the enhanced LPP and EPN are not specific to romantic love. Instead, they suggest that the beloved captures early attention, within 200–300 ms after stimulus onset that is relatively resource-independent, and subsequently receives sustained motivated attention. Future research would benefit from employing cognitive tasks and testing participants who are in love regardless of relationship status.

Reciprocal processes of sensory perception and social bonding: an integrated social-sensory framework of social behavior

Organisms filter the complexity of natural stimuli through their individual sensory and perceptual systems. Such perceptual filtering is particularly important for social stimuli. A shared "social umwelt" allows individuals to respond appropriately to the expected diversity of cues and signals during social interactions. In this way, the behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms of sociality and social bonding cannot be disentangled from perceptual mechanisms and sensory processing. While a degree of embeddedness between social and sensory processes is clear, our dominant theoretical frameworks favor treating the social and sensory processes as distinct. An integrated social-sensory framework has the potential to greatly expand our understanding of the mechanisms underlying individual variation in social bonding and sociality more broadly. Here we leverage what is known about sensory processing and pair bonding in two common study systems with significant species differences in their umwelt (rodent chemosensation and avian acoustic communication). We primarily highlight that (1) communication is essential for pair bond formation and maintenance, (2) the neural circuits underlying perception, communication and social bonding are integrated, and (3) candidate neuromodulatory mechanisms that regulate pair bonding also impact communication and perception. Finally, we propose approaches and frameworks that more fully integrate sensory processing, communication, and social bonding across levels of analysis: behavioral, neurobiological, and genomic. This perspective raises two key questions: (1) how is social bonding shaped by differences in sensory processing?, and (2) to what extent is sensory processing and the saliency of signals shaped by social interactions and emerging relationships?

Individual differences in social attachment: A multi-disciplinary perspective

Social behavior varies across both individuals and species. Research to explain this variation falls under the purview of multiple disciplines, each with its own theoretical and empirical traditions. Integration of these disciplinary traditions is key to developing a holistic perspective. Here, we review research on the biology of social attachment, a phenomena in which individuals develop strong affective connections to one another. We provide a historical overview of research on social attachment from psychological, ethological and neurobiological perspectives. As a case study, we describe work on pair-bonding in prairie voles, a socially monogamous rodent. This specific topic takes advantage of many biological perspectives and techniques to explain social bonds. Lastly, we conclude with an overview of multi-dimensional conceptual frameworks that can be used to explain social phenomena, and we propose a new framework for research on individual variation in attachment behavior. These conceptual frameworks originate from philosophy, physics, ethology, cognitive science and neuroscience. The application and synthesis of such frameworks offers a rich opportunity to advance understanding of social behavior and its mechanisms.

Salivary oxytocin after play with parents predicts behavioural problems in preschool children

BACKGROUND

Oxytocin (OXT) has attracted research interest for its potential involvement in many of the behavioural problems observed in childhood. Due to its logistical advantages, saliva is an attractive fluid to quantify neuropeptides in children. Salivary OXT has been suggested as a potential biomarker for psychopathology during childhood. However, several questions still remain about the extent to which, and under what conditions, concentrations of OXT in saliva can be reliably measured and are related to behavioural problems in preschool age children.

METHODS

Seven samples of saliva from 30 preschool children (17 girls) were collected in five different days at their homes. Three of the samples were collected by the children's parents at baseline daily routine conditions, and four of the samples were collected by researchers during two home-visits: before and after two 15-minute dyadic play sessions (one with mothers and one fathers) between each individual parent and the child. Oxytocin concentrations were quantified by Radioimmunoassay with prior extraction. Children's behavioural problems were assessed by the Caregiver-Teacher Report Form (C-TRF) questionnaire, completed by the child's' preschool teacher.

RESULTS

Salivary OXT measured in baseline samples could not predict any of the behavioural problems measured by the C-TRF. However, when measured after playing with parents salivary OXT showed a stronger pattern of negative correlations, specially with the depression and opposition scales of the C-TRF. Furthermore, salivary OXT was unlikely to be reliably measured using single sampling, but acceptable reliabilities were achieved when averaging several samples. Finally, the single measures of salivary OXT evoked after an episode of play with parents showed better reliabilities than collected at baseline.

CONCLUSION

Measurements of OXT evoked after positive affect interactions with parents seem to capture aspects of the OXT system in young children that might be relevant for understanding the role of this system in children's social behaviour.

Oxytocin and love: Myths, metaphors and mysteries

Oxytocin is a peptide molecule with a multitude of physiological and behavioral functions. Based on its association with reproduction - including social bonding, sexual behavior, birth and maternal behavior - oxytocin also has been called "the love hormone." This essay specifically examines association and parallels between oxytocin and love. However, many myths and gaps in knowledge remain concerning both. A few of these are described here and we hypothesize that the potential benefits of both love and oxytocin may be better understood in light of interactions with more ancient systems, including specifically vasopressin and the immune system. Oxytocin is anti-inflammatory and is associated with recently evolved, social solutions to a variety of challenges necessary for mammalian survival and reproduction. The shared functions of oxytocin and love have profound implications for health and longevity, including the prevention and treatment of excess inflammation and related disorders, especially those occurring in early life and during periods of chronic threat or disease.

Childhood Stressors, Relationship Quality, and Cognitive Health in Later Life

OBJECTIVES

The rising prevalence of cognitive impairment, Alzheimer's disease, and related disorders signals the need for a better understanding of how social factors may affect cognitive health for millions of Americans. Drawing from cumulative inequality theory, we aim to understand the implications of a stressful childhood on social relationships and cognitive health in later life.

METHODS

This study utilizes longitudinal data (2006-2016) from the Health and Retirement Study to examine pathways, both direct and indirect through social relationships in adulthood, from childhood stressors to cognitive health trajectories over time.

RESULTS

Respondents reporting a greater number of stressors in childhood had worse cognitive health over time, but those negative effects were not as steep as time progressed. Early-life stressors are also associated with less social support and more social strain in adulthood which, in turn, are associated with initial cognitive health. Finally, pathway analyses confirm that childhood stressors are indirectly associated with initial cognitive health through social strain and social support.

DISCUSSION

Findings reveal that a stressful childhood creates chains of risks that have lifelong implications for cognitive health, both directly and indirectly by creating obstacles for developing healthy and supportive social relationships.

The Utility of Physiological Measures in Assessing the Empathic Skills of Incarcerated Violent Offenders

Since lack of empathy is an important indicator of violent behaviors, researchers need consistent and valid measures. This study evaluated the practical significance of a potential physiological correlate of empathy compared to a traditional self-report questionnaire in 18 male violent offenders and 21 general population controls. Empathy skills were assessed with the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) questionnaire. Heart-Rate Variability (HRV) was assessed with an electrocardiogram. The RMSSD (Root Mean Square of the Successive beat-to-beat Differences), an HRV index implicated in social cognition, was calculated. There were no group differences in IRI scores. However, RMSSD was lower in the offender group. Positive correlations between RMSSD and IRI subscales were found for controls only. We conclude that psychometric measures of empathy do not discriminate incarcerated violent offenders, and that the incorporation of psychophysiological measures, such as HRV, could be an avenue for forensic research on empathy to establish translatable evidence-based information.

Progress and Pitfalls in Developing Agents to Treat Neurocognitive Deficits Associated with Schizophrenia

Cognitive impairments associated with schizophrenia (CIAS) represent a central element of the symptomatology of this severe mental disorder. CIAS substantially determine the disease prognosis and hardly, if at all, respond to treatment with currently available antipsychotics. Remarkably, all drugs presently approved for the treatment of schizophrenia are, to varying degrees, dopamine D₂/D₃ receptor blockers. In turn, rapidly growing evidence suggests the immense significance of systems other than the dopaminergic system in the genesis of CIAS. Accordingly, current efforts addressing the unmet needs of patients with schizophrenia are primarily based on interventions in other non-dopaminergic systems. In this review article, we provide a brief overview of the available evidence on the importance of specific systems in the development of CIAS. In addition, we describe the promising targets for the development of new drugs that have been used so far. In doing so, we present the most important candidates that have been investigated in the field of the specific systems in recent years and present a summary of the results available at the time of drafting this review (May 2022), as well as the currently ongoing studies.

The Heteronormativity Theory of Low Sexual Desire in Women Partnered with Men

Low sexual desire in women partnered with men is typically presumed to be a problem-one that exists in women and encourages a research agenda on causation and treatment targeting women. In this paper, we present a distinct way forward for research on low sexual desire in women partnered with men that attends to a more structural explanation: heteronormativity. A heteronormative worldview assumes that relationships and structures are heterosexual, gender (usually conflated with sex) is binary and complementary, and gender roles fit within narrow bounds including nurturant labor for women. We propose the heteronormativity theory of low sexual desire in women partnered with men, arguing that heteronormative gender inequities are contributing factors. We outline four hypotheses and their predictions related to: inequitable divisions of household labor, blurring of partner and mother roles, objectification of women, and gender norms surrounding sexual initiation. We discuss some mechanisms-social, physiological, and otherwise-for the heteronormativity theory, especially related to stress, objectification, and nurturance. We close by noting some limitations of our paper and the ways that the heteronormativity theory of low sexual desire in women partnered with men provides a rigorous, generative, and empirical way forward.

Oxytocin and the Neurobiology of Prosocial Behavior

Humans are an unusually prosocial species, who engage in social behaviors that include altruism-whereby an individual engages in costly or risky acts to improve the welfare of another person-care, and cooperation. Current perspectives on the neurobiology of human prosociality suggest that it is deeply rooted in the neuroendocrine architecture of the social brain and emphasize the modulatory role of the neuropeptide hormone oxytocin. In this review, we provide a conceptual overview of the neurobiology of prosocial behavior with a focus on oxytocin's modulatory role in human prosociality. Specifically, we aim to encourage a better understanding of the peptide's susceptibility to diverse factors that produce heterogeneity in outcomes and the resulting methodological implications for measuring the behavioral effects of oxytocin in humans. After providing an overview of the state-of-the-art research on oxytocin's exogenous use, we elaborate on the peptide's modulatory role in the context of care-based altruism, cooperation, and conflict and discuss its potential for therapeutic interventions in psychiatric disorders characterized by social dysfunction.

Early shaming experiences and psychological distress: The role of experiential avoidance and self-compassion

OBJECTIVES

Early shaming experiences have been suggested to be associated with later psychopathological symptoms. Understanding this relationship is complex, due to a number of psychological processes potentially influencing this. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to further explore the nature of the mediating effect of experiential avoidance in the association between early shame experiences and psychological distress, and whether self-compassion moderates this relationship by mitigating the effects of this.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional design was conducted using self-report measures of early shaming experiences, experiential avoidance, self-compassion, and psychological distress.

METHOD

An online study of 556 participants, comprised of participants from the general population and university students participated within this online study.

RESULTS

The moderated mediation model explained 51% of variance within depressive symptoms. Experiential avoidance was found to mediate the association between early shaming experiences and depressive symptoms. This mediating relationship was shown to be moderated by self-compassion, with higher levels of self-compassion being associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms across all levels of experiential avoidance levels (low, medium, and high).

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that self-compassion may play a significant buffering role within attenuating the effects of experiential avoidance associated with depressive symptoms. Such findings present important clinical and theoretical implications in further understanding the protective role of self-compassion within early shaming experiences and the relationship between depressive symptoms.

PRACTITIONER POINTS

Early shaming experiences have been linked to later psychological distress. Experiential avoidance identified a core underlying psychological process in the relationship between early shaming experiences and psychological distress. Self-compassion offers a range of protective features that may alleviate the effects of experiential avoidance and depressive symptoms. Self-compassion-based interventions that target experiential avoidance may offer greater reductions within depressive symptoms.