Molecular species composition of glycolipids from Sprirulina platensis

Spirulina/Arthrospira/Limnospira-Three Names of the Single Organism

Recent advances in research techniques have enabled rapid progress in the study of spirulina, an ancient edible cyanobacteria. Nowadays, spirulina species are classified into three genera: Spirulina, Arthrospira, and Limnospira. The latter now refers to industrially manufactured spirulina strains. Whole-genome sequencing revealed gene clusters involved in metabolite production, and the physiology of spirulina. Omics technologies demonstrated the absence of hazardous compounds in spirulina cells, confirming the safety of this biomass as a food product. Spirulina is a good source of different chemicals used in food manufacturing, food supplements, and pharmaceuticals. Spirulina's enrichment with inherent biologically active substances makes it a potential supplier of natural products for dietary and pharmaceutical applications. Spirulina is also a prospective component of both terrestrial and space-based life support systems. Here, we review current breakthroughs in spirulina research and clarify fallacies that can be found in both professional literature and public media.

The Impact of Different Drying Methods on the Metabolomic and Lipidomic Profiles of Arthrospira platensis

Drying is an inseparable part of industrial microalgae production. In this work, the impacts of eight different drying methods on the metabolome and lipidome of Arthrospira platensis were investigated. The studied drying methods were freeze drying (FD), sun drying (SD), air drying at 40 and 75 °C (AD' and AD″), infrared drying at 40 and 75 °C (IRD' and IRD″), and vacuum drying at 40 and 75 °C (VD' and VD″). Results gathered by reversed-phase liquid chromatography separation coupled with high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization (RP-LC-ESI-Orbitrap HRMS/MS) analysis allowed researchers to identify a total of 316 metabolites (including lipids) in aqueous and ethanolic extracts. The compounds identified in ethanolic extracts were mainly lipids, such as neutral and polar lipids, chlorophylls and carotenoids, while the compounds identified in the aqueous extracts were mainly amino acids and dipeptides. Among the identified compounds, products of enzymatic and chemical degradation, such as pyropheophytins, monoacylglycerols and lysophosphatidylcholines were also identified and their amounts depended on the drying method. The results showed that except for FD method, recognized as a control, the most protective method was AD'. Contrary to this, VD' and VD″, under the conditions used, promoted the most intense degradation of valuable metabolites.

Dietary supplementation with a mixture of Dunaliella salina and Spirulina enhances broiler performance by improving growth, immunity, digestive enzymes and gut microbiota

The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of Dunaliella salina and Spirulina (D + S) mixture on performance, carcass yield, kidney and liver markers, lipid profile, and immune responses of fattening chicks. Two hundred broiler chicks at 7 days old were distributed into 5 experimental groups, 5 replicates each with 8 chicks each. Group 1 was fed on only basal diet; group 2 was fed with basal diet and 0.50 g/kg (D + S); group 3 was fed with basal diet and 1.00 g/kg (D + S); group 4 was fed with basal diet and 1.50 g/kg (D + S); and group 5 was fed with basal diet supplemented with 2.00 g/kg (D + S). The additive mixture (D + S) consisted of (1 D. salina: 1 Spirulina). The experiment lasted for 6 wk. The results demonstrated significantly improved better live body weight, body weight gain, and feed conversion ratio (P<0.01) for groups that received (D + S) at levels of 1.0 and 1.5 g/kg diet compared to other groups at 6 wk of age. There was no significant influence of different levels of dietary feed additives on feed intake or carcass traits. The lipid profile was improved through a reduction of total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) values and increasing high-density lipoprotein (HDL) values, as well as the immune response, which was improved through increasing values of complement 3, immunoglobulin M (IgM), and immunoglobulin G (IgG) in the birds treated with (D + S) compared to the control group. The inclusion of all levels of (D + S)/kg decreased triglyceride, while total protein, albumen, and globulin values (P<0.05 or P<0.01) were higher compared to other groups. The inclusion of the different levels of (D + S)/kg improved liver function, whereas aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) values were lower than in other groups (P<0.001). The lowest values of creatinine, urea, and uric acid were noted in birds fed a diet supplemented with 1.50 g (D + S)/kg. Antioxidant levels were improved through increasing values of catalase (CAT) and reduced glutathione (GSH) enzymes in the treated birds with (D + S) compared with the control chicks. Furthermore, digestive enzymes and microbial content were improved in broiler checks fed on diet supplemented with (D + S) compared to the control group. In conclusion, supplementing broiler chicks with a dietary D. salina and Spirulina combination increased their productive performance, immunity, kidney and liver function, lipid profile, and digestive enzymes.

Role of Algal-derived Bioactive Compounds in Human Health

Algae is emerging as a bioresource with high biological potential. Various algal strains have been used in traditional medicines and human diets worldwide. They are a rich source of bioactive compounds like ascorbic acid, riboflavin, pantothenate, biotin, folic acid, nicotinic acid, phycocyanins, gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), adrenic acid (ARA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), etc. Beta-carotene, astaxanthin, and phycobiliproteins are different classes of pigments that are found in algae. They possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties. The sulfur-coated polysaccharides in algae have been used as an anticancer, antibacterial, and antiviral agent. Scientists have exploited algal-derived bioactive compounds for developing lead molecules against several diseases. Due to the surge in research on bioactive molecules from algae, industries have started showing interest in patenting for the large-scale production of bioactive compounds having applications in sectors like pharmaceuticals, food, and beverage. In the food industry, algae are used as a thickening, gelling, and stabilizing agent. Due to their gelling and thickening characteristics, the most valuable algae products are macroalgal polysaccharides such as agar, alginates, and carrageenan. The high protein, lipid, and nutrient content in microalgae makes it a superfood for aquaculture. The present review aims at describing various non-energy-based applications of algae in pharmaceuticals, food and beverage, cosmetics, and nutraceuticals. This review attempts to analyze information on algal-derived drugs that have shown better potential and reached clinical trials.

Lipophilic and Hydrophilic Compounds from Arthrospira platensis and Its Effects on Tissue and Blood Cells-An Overview

The cyanobacterium Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina platensis) is a natural source of considerable amounts of ingredients that are relevant for nutra- and pharmaceutical uses. Different hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances can be obtained by extraction from the biomass. The respective extraction techniques determine the composition of substances in the extract and thus its biological activity. In this short review, we provide an overview of the hydrophilic compounds (phenols, phycobiliproteins, polysaccharides, and vitamins) and lipophilic ingredients (chlorophylls, vitamins, fatty acids, and glycolipids) of Arthrospira platensis. The principal influences of these substances on blood and tissue cells are briefly summarized.

Utility of fatty acid profile and in vitro immune cell activation for chemical and biological standardization of Arthrospira/Limnospira

Commercially cultivated Limnospira (species formerly classified to genus Arthrospira) is a popular food/supplement consumed by millions of people worldwide for health benefits. The objective of the current research was to advance the standardization technology for Limnospira. Quantitative methods were established to detect fatty acids as potential chemical markers and immune-enhancing activity. Analysis of 20 different batches of biomass obtained from one commercial grower demonstrated that there was a statistically significant relationship between the sum of two fatty acids (linoleic and γ-linolenic) and Toll-like receptor (TLR)2/TLR1-dependent activation (R² = 0.48, p = 0.0007). Investigation of 12 biomass samples sourced from growers in 10 different countries demonstrated that fatty acid content was again significantly correlated with biological activity (R² = 0.72, p = 0.0005) and the content of fatty acids varied by twofold and activity by 12.5-fold. This large variation between different samples confirms the need to use the present standardization methods to ensure consistent and properly characterized biomass for consumers and for future scientific research.

Galactosyldiacylglycerols: From a Photosynthesis-Associated Apparatus to Structure-Defined In Vitro Assembling

Being ubiquitously present in plants, microalgae, and cyanobacteria and as the major constituents of thylakoid membranes, monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG) and digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG) make up approximately 52 and 26%, respectively, of chloroplast lipids. Thylakoid membranes harbor the photosynthetic complexes and numerous essential biochemical pathways where MGDG and DGDG play a central role in facilitating photosynthesis light reaction, maintaining chloroplast morphology, and responding to abiotic stresses. Furthermore, these galactolipids are also bioactive compounds with antitumor, antimicrobial, antiviral, immunosuppressive, and anti-inflammatory activities and important nutritional value. These characteristics are strictly dependent upon their fatty acyl chain length, olefinic nature, and stereoconfiguration. However, their application potentials are practically untapped, largely as a result of the fact that their availability in large quantity and high purity (structured galactolipids) is challenging. In addition to laborious extraction from natural sources, in vitro assembling of these molecules could be a promising alternative. Thus, this review updates the latest advances in elucidating biosynthesis paths of MGDG and DGDG and related enzyme systems, which present invaluable inspiration to design approaches for a retrosynthesis of galactolipids. More critically, this work summarizes recent developments in the biological and enzymatic syntheses of galactolipids, especially the strategic scenarios for the construction of in vitro enzymatic and/or chemoenzymatic synthesis routes. Protein engineering of enzymes involved in the synthesis of MGDG and DGDG to improve their properties is highlighted, and the applications of galactolipids in foods and medicine are also discussed.

Impact of dietary sulfolipid-derived sulfoquinovose on gut microbiota composition and inflammatory status of colitis-prone interleukin-10-deficient mice

The interplay between diet, intestinal microbiota and host is a major factor impacting health. A diet rich in unsaturated fatty acids has been reported to stimulate the growth of Bilophila wadsworthia by increasing the proportion of the sulfonated bile acid taurocholate (TC). The taurine-induced overgrowth of B. wadsworthia promoted the development of colitis in interleukin-10-deficient (IL-10^-/-) mice. This study aimed to investigate whether intake of the sulfonates sulfoquinovosyl diacylglycerols (SQDG) with a dietary supplement or their degradation product sulfoquinovose (SQ), stimulate the growth of B. wadsworthia in a similar manner and, thereby, cause intestinal inflammation. Conventional IL-10^-/- mice were fed a diet supplemented with the SQDG-rich cyanobacterium Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina). SQ or TC were orally applied to conventional IL-10^-/- mice and gnotobiotic IL-10^-/- mice harboring a simplified human intestinal microbiota with or without B. wadsworthia. Analyses of inflammatory parameters revealed that none of the sulfonates induced severe colitis, but both, Spirulina and TC, induced expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in cecal mucosa. Cell numbers of B. wadsworthia decreased almost two orders of magnitude by Spirulina feeding but slightly increased in gnotobiotic SQ and conventional TC mice. Changes in microbiota composition were observed in feces as a result of Spirulina or TC feeding in conventional mice. In conclusion, the dietary sulfonates SQDG and their metabolite SQ did not elicit bacteria-induced intestinal inflammation in IL-10^-/- mice and, thus, do not promote colitis.

Functional Composition, Nutritional Properties, and Biological Activities of MoroccanSpirulinaMicroalga

The present study aimed to characterize the nutraceutical properties and the antimicrobial effect of MoroccanSpirulina(Arthrospira platensis). The nutritional composition was evaluated, including water content, crude protein, total carbohydrates, lipids, phenolic composition, macro- and micromineral content, fiber content, and energy value. Then, the microbiological analysis and antioxidant activity were measured. The antimicrobial activity was evaluated using the minimum inhibitory concentration method on bacteria and fungi. MoroccanSpirulinacontained a large amount of protein (76.65 ± 0.15%), followed by carbohydrates (6.46 ± 0.32%), minerals (20.91 ± 0.88%), crude fiber (4.07 ± 1.42%), lipids (2.45 ± 0.82%), ash (14.56 ± 0.74), and twenty phenolic acids being identified and quantified. Moreover, flavonoid and phenolic contents were present at 15.60 ± 2.74 mg RE/g dw and 4.19 ± 0.21 mg GAE/g dw, respectively. Microbiological risk assessment indicated that this product is safe to be consumed as a human food product. The antioxidant activity was higher in the methanolic fraction (23 mg TE/g dw) (DPPH).

Lipid Isolation Process and Study on Some Molecular Species of Polar Lipid Isolated from Seed of Madhuca ellitica

This study attempted the lipid extraction process from the seeds of Madhuca ellitica, a lipid-rich plant, and conducted a lipidomic analysis on molecular species of the obtained product. Total lipids of the crude seeds were found to contain 11.2% of polar lipids. The major fatty acids (FAs) of the polar lipids were palmitic (16:0), stearic (18:0), oleic (18:1n-9), and linoleic (18:2n-6) acids, which amounted to 28.5, 12.5, 44.8, and 13.2% of total FAs, respectively. The content and chemical structures of individual molecular species of phosphatidylglycerol (PG), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), phosphatidylcholine (PC), phosphatidylinositol (PI), phosphatidic acid (PA), and sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerol (SQDG) were determined by HPLC with a tandem high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). The major molecular species were 18:1/18:2 PE, 16:0/18:1 PC, 18:1/18:2 PC, 16:0/18:2 PG, 16:0/18:1 PG, 16:1/18:1 PI, 16:0/18:1 PI, 18:0/18:2 PI, 16:0/18:1 PA, 18:1/18:2 PA, 16:0/18:1 SQDG, and 18:0/18:1 SQDG. The application of a tandem HRMS allows us to determine the content of each isomer in pairs of the monoisotopic molecular species, for example, 18:0/18:2 and 18:1/18:1. The evaluation of the seed polar lipid profile will be helpful for developing the potential of this tree for nutritive and industrial uses.

Nitrogen and hydrophosphate affects glycolipids composition in microalgae

Glycolipids had received increasing attention because of their uses in various industries like cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, food and machinery manufacture. Microalgae were competitive organisms to accumulate metabolic substance. However, using microalgae to produce glycolipid was rare at present. In this study, glycolipid content of Chlorella pyrenoidosa and Synechococcus sp. under different nitrate and hydrophosphate levels were investigated. The highest glycolipid contents of 24.61% for C. pyrenoidosa and 15.37% for Synechococcus sp. were obtained at nitrate absence, which were 17.19% for C. pyrenoidosa and 10.99% for Synechococcus sp. at 0.01 and 0 g L⁻¹ hydrophosphate, respectively. Glycolipid productivities of two microalgae could reach at more than 10.59 mg L⁻¹ d⁻¹. Nitrate absence induced at least 8.5% increase in MGDG, DGDG and SQDG, while hydrophosphate absence resulted in over 21.2% increase in DGDG and over 48.4% increase in SQDG and more than 22.2% decrease in MGDG in two microalgae. Simultaneous nitrate and hydrophosphate limitation could make further improvement of glycolipid accumulation, which was more than 25% for C. pyrenoidosa and 21% for Synechococcus sp. These results suggest that nitrogen and phosphorus limitation or starvation should be an efficient way to improve microalgal glycolipid accumulation.

Spray Dried Extract of Phormidium valderianum as a Promising Source of Natural Antioxidant

Microencapsulation of antioxidant-rich fraction obtained by supercritical carbon dioxide extraction (at 50°C, 500 bar with extraction time of 90 min, and flow rate of CO₂ at 2 L/min) of lyophilized biomass of Phormidium valderianum was carried out in a spray dryer using maltodextrin and gum arabic. Microencapsulation conditions that provided the best combination of phytochemical properties such as antioxidant activity, phenolic content, and reducing power with reasonable powder yield were an inlet temperature of 130°C and wall material composition as maltodextrin: gum arabic = 70 : 30. Toxicological study reported that the Anatoxin-a content of this encapsulated powder was below the limit of detection of HPLC. Storage study established that encapsulation of this antioxidant-rich algal extract resulted in eight times enhancement of half-life (T_1/2) values. The release profile of microencapsulated antioxidant-rich fraction from the encapsulated powder was found to follow first order anomalous transport kinetics. Therefore, this microencapsulated algal extract with minimum toxicity is a source of natural antioxidant and could have promising use as novel dietary supplement.

Innovative natural functional ingredients from microalgae

Nowadays, a wide variety of compounds such as polyphenols, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), or phytosterols obtained, for example, from wine, fish byproducts, or plants are employed to prepare new functional foods. However, unexplored natural sources of bioactive ingredients are gaining much attention since they can lead to the discovery of new compounds or bioactivities. Microalgae have been proposed as an interesting, almost unlimited, natural source in the search for novel natural functional ingredients, and several works have shown the possibility to find bioactive compounds in these organisms. Some advantages can be associated with the study of microalgae such as their huge diversity, the possibility of being used as natural reactors at controlled conditions, and their ability to produce active secondary metabolites to defend themselves from adverse or extreme conditions. In this contribution, an exhaustive revision is presented involving the research for innovative functional food ingredients from microalgae. The most interesting results in this promising field are discussed including new species composition and bioactivity and new processing and extraction methods. Moreover, the future research trends are critically commented.

Characterization by high-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry of the lipid fraction of Spirulina platensis pressurized ethanol extract

Microalgae have been suggested as a potential source for new functional ingredients, making possible the development of new functional foods from natural origin. Among the natural ingredients, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have generally been identified as an interesting group of compounds with biological activity, mainly related to their anti-inflammatory properties. In this regard, the use of environmentally friendly extraction procedures (e.g. pressurized liquid extraction, PLE) to obtain such natural ingredients is also becoming necessary. In this work, an exhaustive characterization of the lipid fraction of a pressurized ethanolic extract of the microalga Spirulina platensis is carried out. To achieve this objective high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (QTOF-MS) is employed. The use of the QTOF analyzer allows the selection and isolation of precursor ions as well as providing the high efficiency, sensitivity and mass accuracy required. By means of this powerful hyphenated technique, it was possible to identify several polar lipids in an extract of S. platensis (some of them, to our knowledge, described for the first time in this work), including four free fatty acids, four monogalactosyl monoacylglycerols, three phosphatidylglycerols and two sulfoquinovosyl diacylglycerols.