Cytotoxicity of prodigiosin and benznidazole on V79 cells

Transcriptomic analysis of the antimicrobial activity of prodigiosin against Cutibacterium acnes

Prodigiosin, a red pigment produced by Hahella chejuensis, a marine-derived microorganism, has several biological functions, including antimicrobial activity and inflammatory relief. In this study, the antibacterial activity of prodigiosin against skin microorganisms was explored. Paper disc assay on skin bacterial cells revealed that Cutibacterium acnes related to acne vulgaris highly susceptible to prodigiosin. MIC (Minimal Inhibitory Concentration) and MBC (Minimal Bactericidal Concentration) were determined on Cutibacterium species. The RNA-seq analysis of prodigiosin-treated C. acnes cells was performed to understand the antibacterial mechanism of prodigiosin. Among changes in the expression of hundreds of genes, the expression of a stress-responsive sigma factor encoded by sigB increased. Conversely, the gene expression of cell wall biosynthesis and energy metabolism was inhibited by prodigiosin. Specifically, the expression of genes related to the metabolism of porphyrin, a pro-inflammatory metabolite, was significantly reduced. Therefore, prodigiosin could be used to control C. acnes. Our study provided new insights into the antimicrobial mechanism of prodigiosin against C. acnes strains.

Prodigiosin: a promising biomolecule with many potential biomedical applications

Pigments are among the most fascinating molecules found in nature and used by human civilizations since the prehistoric ages. Although most of the bio-dyes reported in the literature were discovered around the eighties, the necessity to explore novel compounds for new biological applications has made them resurface as potential alternatives. Prodigiosin (PG) is an alkaloid red bio-dye produced by diverse microorganisms and composed of a linear tripyrrole chemical structure. PG emerges as a really interesting tool since it shows a wide spectrum of biological activities, such as antibacterial, antifungal, algicidal, anti-Chagas, anti-amoebic, antimalarial, anticancer, antiparasitic, antiviral, and/or immunosuppressive. However, PG vehiculation into different delivery systems has been proposed since possesses low bioavailability because of its high hydrophobic character (XLogP3-AA = 4.5). In the present review, the general aspects of the PG correlated with synthesis, production process, and biological activities are reported. Besides, some of the most relevant PG delivery systems described in the literature, as well as novel unexplored applications to potentiate its biological activity in biomedical applications, are proposed.

Insights of antiparasitic activity of sodium diethyldithiocarbamate against different strains of Trypanosoma cruzi

Chagas disease is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi and affects thousands of people. Drugs currently used in therapy are toxic and have therapeutic limitations. In addition, the genetic diversity of T. cruzi represents an important variable and challenge in treatment. Sodium diethyldithiocarbamate (DETC) is a compound with pharmacological versatility acting as metal chelators and ROS generation. Thus, the objective was to characterize the antiparasitic action of DETC against different strains and forms of T. cruzi and their mechanism. The different strains of T. cruzi were grown in LIT medium. To evaluate the antiparasitic activity of DETC, epimastigote and trypomastigote forms of T. cruzi were used by resazurin reduction methods and by counting. Different response patterns were obtained between the strains and an IC₅₀ of DETC ranging from 9.44 ± 3,181 to 60.49 ± 7.62 µM. Cell cytotoxicity against 3T3 and RAW cell lines and evaluated by MTT, demonstrated that DETC in high concentration (2222.00 µM) presents low toxicity. Yet, DETC causes mitochondrial damage in T. cruzi, as well as disruption in parasite membrane. DETC has antiparasitic activity against different genotypes and forms of T. cruzi, therefore, representing a promising molecule as a drug for the treatment of Chagas disease.

Tambjamines and Prodiginines: Biocidal Activity against Trypanosoma cruzi

The aim of this work was to explore new therapeutic options against Chagas disease by the in vitro analysis of the biocidal activities of several tambjamine and prodiginine derivatives, against the Trypanosoma cruzi CLB strain (DTU TcVI). The compounds were initially screened against epimastigotes. The five more active compounds were assayed in intracellular forms. The tambjamine MM3 and both synthetic and natural prodigiosins displayed the highest trypanocidal profiles, with IC₅₀ values of 4.52, 0.46, and 0.54 µM for epimastigotes and 1.9, 0.57, and 0.1 µM for trypomastigotes/amastigotes, respectively. Moreover, the combination treatment of these molecules with benznidazole showed no synergism. Finally, oxygen consumption inhibition determinations performed using high-resolution respirometry, revealed a potent effect of prodigiosin on parasite respiration (73% of inhibition at ½ IC₅₀), suggesting that its mode of action involves the mitochondria. Moreover, its promising selectivity index (50) pointed out an interesting trypanocidal potential and highlighted the value of prodigiosin as a new candidate to fight Chagas disease.

Formulation technologies and advances for oral delivery of novel nitroimidazoles and antimicrobial peptides

Antibiotic resistance has become a global crisis, driving the exploration for novel antibiotics and novel treatment approaches. Among these research efforts two classes of antibiotics, bicyclic nitroimidazoles and antimicrobial peptides, have recently shown promise as novel antimicrobial agents with the possibility to treat multi-drug resistant infections. However, they suffer from the issue of poor oral bioavailability due to disparate factors: low solubility in the case of nitroimidazoles (BCS class II drugs), and low permeability in the case of peptides (BCS class III drugs). Moreover, antimicrobial peptides present another challenge as they are susceptible to chemical and enzymatic degradation, which can present an additional pharmacokinetic hurdle for their oral bioavailability. Formulation technologies offer a potential means for improving the oral bioavailability of poorly permeable and poorly soluble drugs, but there are still drawbacks and limitations associated with this approach. This review discusses in depth the challenges associated with oral delivery of nitroimidazoles and antimicrobial peptides and the formulation technologies that have been used to overcome these problems, including an assessment of the drawbacks and limitations associated with the technologies that have been applied. Furthermore, the potential for supercritical fluid technology to overcome the shortcomings associated with conventional drug formulation methods is reviewed.

Biosynthesis and Bioactivity of Prodiginine Analogs in Marine Bacteria, Pseudoalteromonas: A Mini Review

The Prodiginine family consists of primarily red-pigmented tripyrrole secondary metabolites that were first characterized in the Gram-negative bacterial species Serratia marcescens and demonstrates a wide array of biological activities and applications. Derivatives of prodiginine have since been characterized in the marine γ-proteobacterium, Pseudoalteromonas. Although biosynthetic gene clusters involved in prodiginine synthesis display homology among genera, there is an evident structural difference in the resulting metabolites. This review will summarize prodiginine biosynthesis, bioactivity, and gene regulation in Pseudoalteromonas in comparison to the previously characterized species of Serratia, discuss the ecological contributions of Pseudoalteromonas in the marine microbiome and their eukaryotic hosts, and consider the importance of modern functional genomics and classic DNA manipulation to understand the overall prodiginine biosynthesis pathway.

Controlling Biostability of Collagen Films for Fibroblast Cytocompatibility

The influence of cross-linking reagent, glutaraldehyde, on the biostability of collagen films was examined. With greater cross-linking, water absorption ability, swelling degree and degradation rate were all decreased. Based on scanning electron microscopy observations, the collagen films changed from a compact structure to a fiber-dominated morphology after cross-linking. Cross-linking provides a more integrated fiber-like structure that impeded degradation. To assess the influence of the cross-linking on cytocompatibility, in vitro cell culture was performed on the cross-linked collagen films using human fibroblasts. Good cytocompatibility of the initial collagen was largely retained after cross-linking, while biostability was greatly improved.

Serratia Secondary Metabolite Prodigiosin Inhibits Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilm Development by Producing Reactive Oxygen Species that Damage Biological Molecules

Prodigiosin is a heterocyclic bacterial secondary metabolite belonging to the class of tripyrrole compounds, synthesized by various types of bacteria including Serratia species. Prodigiosin has been the subject of intense research over the last decade for its ability to induce apoptosis in several cancer cell lines. Reports suggest that prodigiosin promotes oxidative damage to double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) in the presence of copper ions and consequently leads to inhibition of cell-cycle progression and cell death. However, prodigiosin has not been previously implicated in biofilm inhibition. In this study, the link between prodigiosin and biofilm inhibition through the production of redox active metabolites is presented. Our study showed that prodigiosin (500 μM) (extracted from Serratia marcescens culture) and a prodigiosin/copper(II) (100 μM each) complex have strong RNA and dsDNA cleaving properties while they have no pronounced effect on protein. Results support a role for oxidative damage to biomolecules by H2O2 and hydroxyl radical generation. Further, it was demonstrated that reactive oxygen species scavengers significantly reduced the DNA and RNA cleaving property of prodigiosin. P. aeruginosa cell surface hydrophobicity and biofilm integrity were significantly altered due to the cleavage of nucleic acids by prodigiosin or the prodigiosin/copper(II) complex. In addition, prodigiosin also facilitated the bactericidal activity. The ability of prodigiosinto cause nucleic acid degradation offers novel opportunities to interfere with extracellular DNA dependent bacterial biofilms.

Kinetics and Thermodynamics Studies of Prodigiosin Dyeing on Polyester

Prodigiosin is a natural pigment which has antimicrobial activity and produced by a microorganism, but it is insoluble in water, thereby limiting their application in textile dyeing. With the study of the Prodigiosin’s kinetics and thermodynamics on PET, the feasibility of using Prodigiosin as disperse dyes was discussed. The thermodynamics results show that the up-take of Prodigiosin in PET fiber is linear to the dye bath concentration, with increasing temperature, the distribution coefficient decreases and the thermodynamic affinity of the dye has little gown up, the enthalpy and entropy of dyeing were -2.51[kJ/mol] and 5.05[J/(mol·K)] respectively, which show that PET dyeing with prodigiosin is a exothermic process and the diffusion coefficient increases with the temperature rise. The activation energy calculated with the Arrhenius equation is 6.09 [kcal /mol].

Mutagenicity and antimutagenicity of (-)-hinokinin a trypanosomicidal compound measured by Salmonella microsome and comet assays

Background

The dibenzylbutyrolactone lignan (−)-hinokinin (HK) was derived by partial synthesis from (−)-cubebin, isolated from the dry seeds of the pepper, Piper cubeba. Considering the good trypanosomicidal activity of HK and recalling that natural products are promising starting points for the discovery of novel potentially therapeutic agents, the aim of the present study was to investigate the (anti) mutagenic∕ genotoxic activities of HK.

Methods

The mutagenic∕ genotoxic activities were evaluated by the Ames test on Salmonella typhimurium strains TA98, TA97a, TA100 and TA102, and the comet assay, so as to assess the safe use of HK in the treatment of Chagas’ disease. The antimutagenic ∕antigenotoxic potential of HK were also tested against the mutagenicity of a variety of direct and indirect acting mutagens, such as 4- nitro-o-phenylenediamine (NOPD), sodium azide (SA), mitomycin C (MMC), benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P), aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), 2-aminoanthracene (2-AA) and 2-aminofluorene (2-AF), by the Ames test, and doxorubicin (DXR) by the comet assay.

Results

The mutagenicity∕genotoxicity tests showed that HK did not induce any increase in the number of revertants or extent of DNA damage, demonstrating the absence of mutagenic and genotoxic activities. On the other hand, the results on the antimutagenic potential of HK showed a strong inhibitory effect against some direct and indirect-acting mutagens.

Conclusions

Regarding the use of HK as an antichagasic drug, the absence of mutagenic effects in animal cell and bacterial systems is encouraging. In addition, HK may be a new potential antigenotoxic ∕ antimutagenic agent from natural sources. However, the protective activity of HK is not general and varies with the type of DNA damage-inducing agent used.

Mitochondrial dysfunction in Trypanosoma cruzi: the role of Serratia marcescens prodigiosin in the alternative treatment of Chagas disease

BACKGROUND

Chagas disease is a health threat for many people, mostly those living in Latin America. One of the most important problems in treatment is the limitation of existing drugs. Prodigiosin, produced by Serratia marcescens (Rhodnius prolixus endosymbiont), belongs to the red-pigmented bacterial prodiginine family, which displays numerous biological activities, including antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, antimalarial, immunosuppressive, and anticancer properties. Here we describe its effects on Trypanosoma cruzi mitochondria belonging to Tc I and Tc II.

RESULTS

Parasites exposed to prodigiosin altered the mitochondrial function and oxidative phosphorylation could not have a normal course, probably by inhibition of complex III. Prodigiosin did not produce cytotoxic effects in lymphocytes and Vero cells and has better effects than benznidazole. Our data suggest that the action of prodigiosin on the parasites is mediated by mitochondrial structural and functional disruptions that could lead the parasites to an apoptotic-like cell death process.

CONCLUSIONS

Here, we propose a potentially useful trypanocidal agent derived from knowledge of an important aspect of the natural life cycle of the parasite: the vector-parasite interaction. Our results indicate that prodigiosin could be a good candidate for the treatment of Chagas disease.

Prodigiosin production by Serratia marcescens UCP 1549 using renewable-resources as a low cost substrate

A new strain of Serratia marcescens UCP1459 isolated from a semi-arid soil produced the natural red pigment prodigiosin, characterized by an uncommon pyrrolylpyrromethane skeleton. Prodigiosin is a promising drug due to its reported antifungal, immunosuppressive and anti-proliferative activities. The objective of this work was to indentify a suitable medium to simultaneously enhance S. marcescens growth and pigment production using renewable resources obtained from industrial wastes. S. marcescens produced the highest level of prodigiosin (49.5 g/L) at 48 h of cultivation using 6% "manipueira" (cassava wastewater) supplemented with mannitol (2%) at pH 7 and 28 °C. Carbohydrates in "manipueira" and mannitol play a role in the enhanced cell growth and prodigiosin production. The purified pigment extracted from the biomass was analyzed by mass spectrophotometry and showed the expected molecular weight of 324 Da corresponding to prodigiosin. In conclusion, we have successfully designed a new, economically feasible medium supporting enhanced S. marcescens growth and a high yield production of prodigiosin.

Association of dopamine DA-D2 receptor in rotenone-induced cytotoxicity in PC12 cells

The investigations were aimed to study the possible association of dopamine DA-D2 receptor in rotenone-induced cytotoxicity in PC12 cells, one among the most studied cell line in neurotoxicity studies. PC12 cells were subjected to receive an exposure of rotenone (10-6 to 10-4 M) for 24 and 48 hours. Cytotoxicity studies were carried out using standard end points including, (3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) (MTT), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release and neutral red uptake (NRU). Cells were found to be vulnerable to rotenone in dose-dependent manner. In general, 10-4 and 10-5 M concentrations were found to be cytotoxic, whereas 10-6 M and lower concentrations used have shown nonsignificant effect on cell viability. Further, studies were extended to study the rotenone-induced alterations in cellular glutathione (GSH) level and dopamine DA-D2 receptor expression. Significant (p < 0.001) chronological depletion in GSH levels were recorded following rotenone exposure. Expression of dopamine DA-D2 receptor was also found to be effected significantly (p < 0.001) at 24 hours of rotenone exposure (10-4 and 10-5). However, no further depletion in the expression of dopamine DA-D2 receptor could be recorded with extended exposure period, that is, 48 hours. Rotenone at 10-6 M and lower concentrations was found to be ineffective in PC12 cells. Data suggest the vulnerability of PC12 cells against experimental exposure of rotenone, which possibly routed through dopamine DA-D2 receptor and oxidative stress machinery.

Cytotoxic, mutagenic and genotoxic effects of new anti-T. cruzi 5-phenylethenylbenzofuroxans. Contribution of phase I metabolites on the mutagenicity induction

5-Phenylethenylbenzofuroxans have displayed in vitro and in vivo activity against Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of American Trypanosomiasis. On the basis of benzofuroxans pre-clinical studies we evaluated the potential of six 5-phenylethenyl derivatives to induce cytotoxicity, mutagenicity and genotoxicity using different in vitro models. Cytotoxic effects were evaluated using a set of cells, mammal pre-monocytic macrophages, V-79 lung fibroblast from Chinese hamster, and colorectal adenocarcinoma Caco-2 cells, in the MTT viability assay. Mutagenicity was tested in the Ames assay using Salmonella typhimurium TA98 strain with and without metabolic activation by S9-rat liver homogenate. The genotoxic potentials were evaluated with the alkaline single cell gel electrophoresis (comet assay) in V-79 cells. In view of the Ames test results we study whether the main mammals' phase I metabolites, the corresponding o-nitroanilines, are involved in the mechanism of mutagenicity. These metabolites are produced by NADPH-dependent enzymes in cytosol and by xanthine oxidase and cytochrome P450 in microsomes from rat liver. Among them, the electronic property of phenyl substituent seems to be responsible for this effect. It could be pointed out that the equimolecular mixture of compounds 1 and 2 (5E- and 5Z-(2-phenylethenyl)benzofuroxan, respectively) could be used in further clinical studies as anti-T. cruzi drug.

Prodigiosin is not a determinant factor in lysis of Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis after interaction with Serratia marcescens D-mannose sensitive fimbriae

In this paper, the lytic activity of two variants of Serratia marcescens against promastigotes of Leishmania braziliensis was studied. In vitro assays showed that S. marcescens variant SM365 lyses L. braziliensis promastigotes, while the variant DB11 did not. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed that S. marcescens SM365 adheres to all cellular body and flagellum of the parasite. Several filamentous structures were formed and identified as biofilms. After 120min incubation, they connect the protozoan to the developing bacterial clusters. SEM also demonstrated that bacteria, adhered onto L. braziliensis promastigote surface, formed small filamentous structures which apparently penetrates into the parasite membrane. d-mannose protects L. braziliensis against the S. marcescens SM365 lytic effect in a dose dependent manner. SM365 variant pre cultivated at 37 degrees C did not synthesize prodigiosin although the adherence and lysis of L. braziliensis were similar to the effect observed with bacteria cultivated at 28 degrees C, which produce high concentrations of prodigiosin. Thus, we suggest that prodigiosin is not involved in the lysis of promastigotes and that adherence promoted by bacterial mannose-sensitive (MS) fimbriae is a determinant factor in the lysis of L. braziliensis by S. marcescens SM365.

Evaluation of the anti-Trichophyton activity of a prodigiosin analogue produced by gamma-proteobacterium, using stratum corneum epidermis of the Yucatan micropig

Prodigiosins (PGs) are known to be a family of natural red pigments, characterized by a common pyrrolydipyrrolylmethane skeleton structure with a C-4 methoxy group, and some of these pigments have been isolated from some microorganisms. Members of the PG family have been reported to show several biological activities, such as immunosuppressive and cytotoxic activities. Recently, we discovered a bacterial strain (MS-02-063), from our microbial library, that produces large amounts of a PG analogue (PG-L-1). In this study, we examined the anti-Trichophyton activity of PG-L-1 (produced by strain MS-02-063) against clinically isolated Trichophyton spp., by a method using stratum corneum epidermis (SCE) of the Yucatan micropig, which is suitable for estimating the antifungal activity of drugs in vitro. In the National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards (NCCLS) method, PG-L-1 showed potent antifungal activity against nine clinically isolated strains of Trichophyton spp., although the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values were slightly higher than those of bifonazole. In spite of the lower efficiency of PG-L-1 transfer into SCE from medium than that of bifonazole, PG-L-1 transferred into SCE showed more potent antifungal activity than bifonazole, at lower concentrations.

Gut microbiota and parasite transmission by insect vectors

In the gut of some insect vectors, parasites ingested with the bloodmeal decrease in number before coming into contact with host tissues. Many factors could be responsible for this reduction in parasite number but the potentially important role of the large communities of naturally occurring microorganisms that exist alongside the newly ingested parasites in the vector midgut has been largely overlooked. Some previous reports exist of the inhibition of parasite development by vector gut microbiota and of the killing of Trypanosoma cruzi and Plasmodium spp. by prodigiosin produced by bacteria. Based on this evidence, we believe that the microbiota present in the midgut of vector insects could have important roles as determinants of parasite survival and development in insect vector hosts and, therefore, contribute to the modulation of vector competence for many important diseases.

Preformed microcapsules for loading and sustained release of ciprofloxacin hydrochloride

A novel pathway for ciprofloxacin hydrochloride delivery system based on spontaneous deposition mechanism was introduced with respect to encapsulation, quantitative drug loading and sustained release. Layer-by-layer assembly of oppositely charged polyelectrolytes onto melamine formaldehyde (MF) colloidal particles, followed by removal of the cores at low pH has yielded hollow microcapsules having a unique property to induce spontaneous deposition of various water-soluble substances. Observations under scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy and transmission electron microscopy provided direct proofs of the spontaneous deposition. The quantitative drug loading and sustained release properties were elucidated. Results show that the loaded drug is proportional to drug feeding concentrations, temperature and salt concentrations, demonstrating tailorable deposition behavior that is crucial for the drug carrier. The deposited ciprofloxacin hydrochloride could be again released in a sustained manner and exhibited a significant antiseptic activity with high biocompatibility.

Isolation of Serratia marcescens in the midgut of Rhodnius prolixus: impact on the establishment of the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi in the vector

The effects of resident bacteria in the stomach of 5th-instar larvae of Rhodnius prolixus on the erythrocyte lysis and Trypanosoma cruzi infection were studied. The bacteria population increased approximately 10,000-fold after feeding. Hemolysis rose to approximately 28% within 24h postfeeding and then linearly grew until day 4 attaining almost 100%. The number of surviving Y strain of T. cruzi in the stomach declined drastically, while the infection with Dm28c clone was maintained stable. Five days after feeding, few different types of bacterial colonies were obtained when stomach content suspensions were spread onto BHI agar plates. The hemolytic bacteria were isolated and identified as Serratia marcescens biotype A1a (referenced as RPH), which produces the pigment prodigiosin. In vitro experiments, comparing incubations of RPH with S. marcescens SM365, a prodigiosin pigment producer, and S. marcescens DB11, a nonpigment variant, as a control, with erythrocytes and T. cruzi demonstrated that: (i) at 30 degrees C, SM365 and RPH diminished the populations of Y strain, but not DM28c clone, and DB11 was unable to lyse both T. cruzi strains; (ii) at 0 degrees C, SM263 and RPH killed the flagellates, but DB11 did not; and (iii) all three strains of S. marcescens were able to lyse erythrocytes. These results suggest that S. marcescens trypanolytic activity from the SM365 and RPH strains is distinct from the hemolytic activity and that prodigiosin is an important factor for the trypanolytic action of the bacteria.

The prodigiosins, proapoptotic drugs with anticancer properties

The family of natural red pigments, called prodigiosins (PGs), characterised by a common pyrrolylpyrromethene skeleton, are produced by various bacteria. Some members have immunosuppressive properties and apoptotic effects in vitro and they have also displayed antitumour activity in vivo. Understanding the mechanism of action of PGs is essential for drug development and will require the identification and characterisation of their still unidentified cell target. Four possible mechanisms of action have been suggested for these molecules: (i) PGs as pH modulators; (ii) PGs as cell cycle inhibitors; (iii) PGs as DNA cleavage agents; (iv) PGs as mitogen-activated protein kinase regulators. Here, we review the pharmacological activity of PG and related compounds, including novel synthetic PG derivatives with lower toxicity and discuss the mechanisms of action and the molecular targets of those molecules. The results reported in this review suggest that PGs are a new class of anticancer drugs, which hold out considerable promise for the Pharmacological Industry.

The cytotoxic prodigiosin induces phosphorylation of p38-MAPK but not of SAPK/JNK

Prodigiosin (PG) is a red pigment produced by Serratia marcescens, with cytotoxic and immunosuppressive activity. It induces apoptosis in several cancer cell lines, including Jurkat-T cells. Here we examine the role of two stress-stimulated kinase cascades in this induction. Time course experiments using polyclonal antibodies showed that p38-MAPK phosphorylation began at 15 min and lasted for 3 h, whereas JNK was not phosphorylated, although both proteins were present. SB203580, a selective inhibitor of p38-MAPK, blocked its phosphorylation in PG-treated cells. Taken together, these data suggest that the PG induces phosphorylation of p38-MAPK but not of SAPK/JNK and that it increases the expression of both c-jun and c-fos oncoproteins.