High-performance liquid chromatographic method for fingerprinting and quantitative determination of E- and Z-guggulsterones in Commiphora mukul resin and its products

In-vivo anti-diabetic and anti-hyperlipidemic effects of natural metabolites from resin of Commiphora mukul and their in-silico to in-vitro target fishing

Diabetes mellitus is a rapidly spreading global metabolic disorder that has serious social, health, and economic consequences. Herein, we have evaluated in vivo antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic effects of myrrhanone-B and myrrhanol-B (isolated from Commiphora mukul Hook). We observed that treatment with myrrhanone-B and myrrhanol-B at a dose of 5 and 10 mg/kg body weight for 21 days significantly improved body weight loss, water consumption, and the concentration of blood glucose level (BGL) in alloxan (120 mg/kg) induced diabetic mice, which indicates that the compounds possess strong anti-diabetic activities. In the biochemical analysis, these compounds improved an abnormal level of total cholesterol (TC), triacylglycerol (TG), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) to a normal level and increased the high-density lipoprotein cholesterol level (HDLC). Later, drug target of compounds was predicted through in-silico docking which shows that these compounds nicely fit in the active site of α-glucosidase enzyme and mediates excellent interactions with the catalytic residues, Asp214 and Asp349. The in-silico results were confirmed by in-vitro testing of myrrhanone-B and myrrhanol-B against α-glucosidase where both the compounds exhibited excellent inhibitory potency with IC50 values of 19.50 ± 0.71, and 16.11 ± 0.69 µM, respectively. Furthermore, mechanistic study was conducted to observe their binding mechanism, which reflect that myrrhanol-B has mixed type of inhibition (ki = 12.33 ± 0.030 µM), while myrrhanone-B demonstrates competitive type of inhibition (ki =14.53 ± 0.040 µM).

Phytochemical Composition of Commiphora Oleogum Resins and Their Cytotoxicity against Skin Cancer Cells

Oleogum resins of the genus Commiphora have been used in traditional medicines for centuries. More than 200 Commiphora species exhibit highly variable phytochemical compositions. A novel highly selective, sensitive, accurate HPLC-MS/MS method was developed and validated to quantify five characteristic phytosteroids and furanosesquiterpenoids, namely (E)-guggulsterone, (Z)-guggulsterone, curzerenone, furanoeudesma-1,3-diene, and myrrhone. The resulting contents and additionally GC analysis were used to classify and differentiate Commiphora oleogum resins of the species C. myrrha, C. erythraea, C. mukul, C. holtziana, C. confusa, and C. kua, as well as unspecified resins. Interestingly, a Commiphora sample from Ogaden, Ethiopia, comprised 446 ng/mg guggulsterones presumed to be unique to C. mukul from the Indian subcontinent. However, Commiphora from Ogaden differed considerably from C. mukul in respect to guggulsterones isomer’s ratio. Moreover, the cytotoxicity of Commiphora extracts, essential oils, botanical drugs containing Commiphora, and pure compounds against the epidermoid carcinoma A431, malignant melanoma RPMI-7951 and SK-MEL-28 cells was investigated in vitro. Thereby, especially C. mukul extract and C. myrrha essential oil exhibited high cytotoxicity against skin cancer cells with IC₅₀ of 2.9–10.9 µg/mL, but were less toxic to normal keratinocytes. In summary, Commiphora oleogum resins and its phytochemicals warrant further investigation aiming at chemotaxonomical classification as well as application in skin cancer treatment.

Myrrhanone B and Myrrhanol B from resin of Commipohora mukul exhibit hepatoprotective effects in-vivo

Despite a large number of liver disorders, clinically useful drugs are scarce. Moreover, the available therapies are facing the challenges of efficacy and safety. Commipohora mukul has been used in folk medicine globally for millennia for the treatment of several ailments. The current study was designed to evaluate the possible hepatoprotective activity of Myrrhanone B (MN) and Myrrhanol B (ML) isolated from C. mukul using an animal model. The animals (Swiss albino mice) were segregated into seven groups, each comprising six mice. The first group was treated with normal saline at a dose of 1 ML/kg daily intraperitoneally (i.p.) for one week. The second group was treated with acetaminophen (APAP) (250 mg/kg, i.p.), it was taken as a negative control. Group 3 was used as a positive control (treated with Silymarin (100 mg/kg, i.p.)). While groups 4-7 were used as experimental groups (termed as groups II to IV), which were treated with ML and MN at a dose of 0.6 mg/kg, and 1.2 mg/kg (i.p.) for one week. Subsequently, blood serum and liver tissue samples were collected for biochemical and histopathological analysis. Both compounds significantly improved the levels of liver biomarkers including aspartate transaminase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), bilirubin, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and alanine transaminase (ALT) as compared to the normal saline-treated group in APAP-induced hepatotoxic mice. Moreover, both compounds significantly modulated the expression of oxidative biomarkers including superoxide dismutase (SOD), reduced glutathione (GSH), and catalase (CAT) at the same doses. Additionally, ML and MN showed a remarkable improvement in histological changes with only mild inflammation, mild hemorrhage, no necrosis, and no pyknosis as compared to the control groups. In conclusion, MN and ML exhibited significant hepatoprotective effects in the animal model used in this study.

Synthetic E-guggulsterone derivative GSD-1 inhibits NF-κB signaling and suppresses the metastatic potential of breast cancer cells

Guggulsterone (GS) [4,17(20)-pregnadiene-3,16-dione], is the main active phytosterol constituent in guggul, the gum resin of Commiphora wightii (Arnott.) Bhand./Commiphora mukul Engl. tree, and is known for its medicinal effects. In this study, we report that GSD-1, a structurally-related synthetic GS derivative, strongly inhibits NF-κB activation induced by TNF-α. GSD-1 prevented the nuclear translocation of p65 through the blockade of IκBα degradation and p65 phosphorylation, and further inhibited the activation of upstream kinases, including transforming growth factor-β activated kinase 1 (TAK1), IκB kinase (IKK) α, and IKKβ. Furthermore, GSD-1 inhibited the cell-intrinsic activation of NF-κB, and exerted its direct anti-cancer and anti-metastatic effects in both murine and human breast cancer cell lines. This study demonstrated GSD-1 to be an attractive compound to target NF-κB activation that has potential for treating breast cancer growth and metastasis.

Phytochemical Constituents of Guggul and their Biological Qualities

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In the herbal drug pharmaceutical industry, guggul is enjoying emergent consumer acceptance around the world. In the Indian market, more than fifty formulations of guggul have been introduced by well-known brands including Himalaya, Patanjali and Baidyanath Pharmaceuticals. Basically, guggul is the gum resin from Commiphora wightii (syn. Commiphora Mukul). It has been used to treat various ailments including obesity, osteoarthritis, arthritis, constipation, liver disorders, inflammation, anemia, diabetes, etc. Including medicinal properties, it is used as a good binding agent and mixed in various herbal formulations. To review the major phytochemical, medicinal properties and analytical methods involved in the detection of guggul by using the exhaustive bibliographic research by means of various scientific engines and databases. Guggul contained approximately 66 phytochemical including gallic acid, quercetin, and guggulsterones E and Z. These phytochemicals have a wide range of pharmacological activities such as antioxidant, antibacterial, antimutagenic, antivenom and antitumor. It has been noticed that the mode of action of guggulsterone has not been fully explored. Pharmacology and toxicological studies are very few. These works have shown huge literature gap, which is to be fulfilled through the detailed in-vivo and in-vitro studies.

In vitro evaluation of reactive nature of E- and Z-guggulsterones and their metabolites in human liver microsomes using UHPLC-Orbitrap mass spectrometer

Guggulipid is known to be useful for hypercholesterolemia, arthritis, acne, and obesity. These activities are attributed to its two principal isomeric active constituents, viz., E- and Z-guggulsterones. There are several side effects reported for guggulipid, which include widespread erythematous papules in a morbilliform pattern and macules localized to the arms; swelling and erythema of the face with burning sensation; pruritis; and bullous lesions on the lower legs with associated headaches, myalgia and itching. We hypothesized that one probable reason for these toxic reactions could be the formation of electrophilic reactive metabolites (RMs) of guggulsterones and their subsequent reaction with cellular proteins. Unfortunately, no report exists in the literature highlighting detection of RMs of guggulsterone isomers. Accordingly, the present study was undertaken to investigate the potential of E- and Z-guggulsterones to form RMs in human liver microsomes (HLM) using glutathione (GSH) and N-acetylcysteine (NAC) as trapping agents. The generated samples were analysed using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) coupled to an Orbitrap mass spectrometer. The analysis of incubations with trapping agents highlighted that hydroxylated metabolites of guggulsterone isomers showed adduction with GSH and NAC. Even direct adducts of guggulsterone isomers were observed with both the trapping agents. The in silico toxicity potential of E- and Z-guggulsterones and their RMs was predicted using ADMET Predictor™ software and comparison was made against reported toxicities of guggulipid.

Estimation of Guggulsterone E and Z in the Guggul-based Commercial Formulations Using High-performance Thin-layer Chromatography

Background:

Guggulsterone (GS) is a plant steroid and bioactive compound present in gum Guggul of Commiphora wightii. An Indian herbal medicine system “Ayurveda” has a long history of use of gum Guggul and plant extract of C. wightii as medicine for the treatment of various illnesses. Complex nature, low availability, and inconsistency of phytoconstituents make its analysis of difficult tasks.

Aims:

In this work, six different Guggul-based herbal formulations were examined for estimation of GS and their isomers (E and Z) through high-performance thin-layer chromatography technique.

Materials and Methods:

For that various concentrations of standard E-GS and Z-GS (50 ng–250 ng/spot) with samples (20 μg/spot) were applied on silica gel coated aluminum plate and developed with the mobile phase of toluene: ethyl acetate: formic acid: methanol (6:2:1:0.5). The scanning was performed at 254 nm wavelength and the absorbance (scan) spectrum of E-GS and Z-GS peak was generated at 200 nm–400 nm wavelength range.

Results and Conclusions:

Rf value and scan spectrum pattern of the samples reveal that they contain either one form of GS (E-GS, Z-GS) or both. The quantity of E-GS and Z-GS within the samples was ranged from 0.230 ± 0.0040–0.926 ± 0.0168% to 0.537 ± 0.0026–0.723 ± 0.0177%, respectively.

Metabolic profiling of Commiphora wightii (guggul) reveals a potential source for pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals

Guggul gum resin from Commiphora wightii (syn. Commiphoramukul) has been used for centuries in Ayurveda to treat a variety of ailments. The NMR and GC-MS based non-targeted metabolite profiling identified 118 chemically diverse metabolites including amino acids, fatty acids, organic acids, phenolic acids, pregnane-derivatives, steroids, sterols, sugars, sugar alcohol, terpenoids, and tocopherol from aqueous and non-aqueous extracts of leaves, stem, roots, latex and fruits of C. wightii. Out of 118, 51 structurally diverse aqueous metabolites were characterized by NMR spectroscopy. For the first time quinic acid and myo-inositol were identified as the major metabolites in C. wightii. Very high concentration of quinic acid was found in fruits (553.5 ± 39.38 mg g(-1) dry wt.) and leaves (212.9 ± 10.37 mg g(-1) dry wt.). Similarly, high concentration of myo-inositol (168.8 ± 13.84 mg g(-1) dry wt.) was observed from fruits. The other metabolites of cosmeceutical, medicinal, nutraceutical and industrial significance such as α-tocopherol, n-methylpyrrolidone (NMP), trans-farnesol, prostaglandin F2, protocatechuic, gallic and cinnamic acids were identified from non-aqueous extracts using GC-MS. These important metabolites have thus far not been reported from this plant. Isolation of a fungal endophyte, (Nigrospora sps.) from this plant is the first report. The fungal endophyte produced a substantial quantity of bostrycin and deoxybostrycin known for their antitumor properties. Very high concentrations of quinic acid and myo-inositol in leaves and fruits; a substantial quantity of α-tocopherol and NMP in leaves, trans-farnesol in fruits, bostrycin and deoxybostrycin from its endophyte makes the taxa distinct, since these metabolites with medicinal properties find immense applications as dietary supplements and nutraceuticals.

Quantitative determination of guggulsterone in existing natural populations of Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari for identification of germplasm having higher guggulsterone content

Guggulsterone is an aromatic steroidal ketonic compound obtained from vertical rein ducts and canals of bark of Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari (Family - Burseraceae). Owing to its multifarious medicinal and therapeutic values as well as its various other significant bioactivities, guggulsterone has high demand in pharmaceutical, perfumery and incense industries. More and more pharmaceutical and perfumery industries are showing interest in guggulsterone, therefore, there is a need for its quantitative determination in existing natural populations of C. wightii. Identification of elite germplasm having higher guggulsterone content can be multiplied through conventional or biotechnological means. In the present study an effort was made to estimate two isoforms of guggulsterone i.e. E and Z guggulsterone in raw exudates of 75 accessions of C. wightii collected from three states of North-western India viz. Rajasthan (19 districts), Haryana (4 districts) and Gujarat (3 districts). Extracted steroid rich fraction from stem samples was fractionated using reverse-phase preparative High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) coupled with UV/VIS detector operating at wavelength of 250 nm. HPLC analysis of stem samples of wild as well as cultivated plants showed that the concentration of E and Z isomers as well as total guggulsterone was highest in Rajasthan, as compared to Haryana and Gujarat states. Highest concentration of E guggulsterone (487.45 μg/g) and Z guggulsterone (487.68 μg/g) was found in samples collected from Devikot (Jaisalmer) and Palana (Bikaner) respectively, the two hyper-arid regions of Rajasthan, India. Quantitative assay was presented on the basis of calibration curve obtained from a mixture of standard E and Z guggulsterones with different validatory parameters including linearity, selectivity and specificity, accuracy, auto-injector, flow-rate, recoveries, limit of detection and limit of quantification (as per norms of International conference of Hormonization). Present findings revealed the role of environmental factors on biosynthesis of guggulsterone isomers under natural conditions.

The appetite regulatory effect of guggulsterones in rats: a repertoire of plasma hormones and neurotransmitters

Guggulsterone or guggulipid is a steroidal constituent present in the neutral fraction of gum resin of Commiphora mukul, commonly known as guggul. The traditional uses of guggul-resin extract are well documented in the Ayurveda-where it is prescribed to treat a variety of ailments including lipid-related disorders such as obesity and arteriosclerosis. The hypolipidemic activity of the extracts known since ancient times can be traced to the two closely related steroidal ketones, E-guggulsterone and Z-guggulsterone. In this study, we have investigated the dose dependent (100, 200, 400 mg/kg body weight) effect of guggulsterones on appetite regulating hormones [ghrelin, leptin, cholecystokinin (CCK)] and neurotransmitters (serotonin and dopamine), which play a major role in the energy homeostasis and thus influence obesity related factors. We have also studied its effect on food intake, body weight and plasma triglycerides and glucose in rats. Guggulsterones at the dose of 400 mg/kg body weight was able to significantly reduce food intake and limit body weight gain over a period of 15 days. It also significantly decreased the plasma ghrelin, glucose, triglyceride levels and increased plasma leptin, serotonin, dopamine levels, but did not show much effect on CCK levels.

Guggulipid of Commiphora mukul, with antiallodynic and antihyperalgesic activities in both sciatic nerve and spinal nerve ligation models of neuropathic pain

CONTEXT

Guggulipid is a neutral fraction of ethyl acetate extract of gum resin of the tree Commiphora mukul Engl. (Burseraceae) and used in Ayurvedic medicine for treatment of neurological disorders.

OBJECTIVES

The present study was undertaken to assess the antiallodynic and antihyperalgesic activities of guggulipid in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The screening study included the CCI and L5-L6 SNL models of neuropathic pain. Guggulipid (100 and 50 mg/kg) or saline was administered intraperitoneally in a blinded, randomized manner from postoperative day (POD) 7 to 13. Paw withdrawal duration (PWD) to spontaneous pain, chemical allodynia and mechanical hyperalgesia and paw withdrawal latency (PWL) to mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia were tested before surgery, before and after guggulipid or saline administration (from POD7 to 13) and after the withdrawal of treatment (from POD14 to 20).

RESULTS

The activity profiles of the different doses of guggulipid were found to vary with time. In CCI rats, guggulipid (100 and 50 mg/kg) significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the spontaneous pain, mechanical allodynia and mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia responses and the LD50 of guggulipid was 1600 mg/kg. In SNL rats, both doses of guggulipid were found to be ineffective in reversing the spontaneous pain but showing antiallodynic and antihyperalgesic activity.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The results demonstrated that guggulipid produce antinociception in the peripheral nerve injury (CCI and SNL) models of neuropathic pain. The underlying mechanisms are expected to be modulating microglial activation occurring due to peripheral nerve injury.

Novel stereoselective synthesis and chromatographic evaluation of E-guggulsterone

A new stereoselective synthesis of E-guggulsterone is described starting from androsten-3,17-dione. Protection of the ring A enonic system, followed by regioselective Wittig reaction and C-16 oxidation, affords E-guggulsterone in good yields and high stereoselectivity, making this approach easily accessible and scalable. Moreover, an original normal-phase HPLC method enabling the fast quantitation of the guggulsterone isomeric purity, combined with the suitability for sampling procedures, is detailed. The relying upon the cellulose-based Chiralpak IB column and the chloroform as the "non-standard" component of the eluent mixture, allows to get profitably high chromatographic performances.

A Regioselective Synthesis of E-Guggulsterone

We have successfully prepared E-guggulsterone from 16,17-epoxy-pregnenolone in 84% yield over two steps via a hydrazine reduction and Oppenhauer oxidation. Additionally, isomerization was induced by heat, light (hν) and acid catalysis to convert E- guggulsterone into the corresponding Z isomer.

Effective separation and analysis of E- and Z-guggulsterones in Commiphora mukul resin, guggulipid and their pharmaceutical product by high performance thin-layer chromatography-densitometric method

A high performance thin-layer chromatographic (HPTLC) method for the simultaneous determination of the hypolipidemic agents, E- and Z-isomers of guggulsterone in Commiphora mukul resin, guggulipid (ethyl acetate extract of resin), and its pharmaceutical formulation, was developed. The developed system was efficient enough to separate both isomers from their conger, 17,20-dihydroguggulsterone. HPTLC glass plates, pre-coated with silica gel 60F-254, were used as a stationary phase. The mobile phase consisted of toluene:acetone (9.3:0.7, v/v) which gave well resolved spots for E- and Z-guggulsterones (R(f): 0.52±0.01, and 0.67±0.01, respectively) following double development of chromatoplate with the same mobile phase under unsaturated conditions. The analyte stability towards the developed chromatographic procedure was also investigated by two-dimensional (2D) HPTLC analysis. 17,20-Dihydroguggulsterone (3) was identified by the electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-QTOF-MS/MS) analysis.

Guggulsterone production in cell suspension cultures of the guggul tree, Commiphora wightii, grown in shake-flasks and bioreactors

Cell suspension cultures of Commiphora wightii, grown in modified MS medium containing 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (0.5 mg l(-1)) and kinetin (0.25 mg l(-1)), produced approximately 5 microg guggulsterone g(-1) dry wt. In a 2 l stirred tank bioreactor, the biomass was 5.5 g l(-1) and total guggulsterone was 36 microg l(-1).

Myrrh--Commiphora chemistry

Myrrh and opopanax has been used throughout history in incense and as a perfume. Since Bible times it has been used for the treatment of wounds. The first attempts to identify content compounds were almost 100 years ago. In this review we discuss the present state of knowledge in the chemistry of substances of Commiphora spp.

HPTLC method for guggulsterone. II. Stress degradation studies on guggulsterone

Stress degradation studies were carried out on guggulsterone (the hypolipidemic agent in the gum-resin exudates of Commiphora mukul) following the conditions prescribed in the parent drug stability testing guideline (Q1AR) issued by International Conference on Harmonization (ICH). The present study describes degradation of guggulsterone under different ICH prescribed stress conditions (acid and base hydrolysis, oxidation, dry and wet heat degradation and photodegradation) and establishment of a stability indicating HPTLC assay. The method employed TLC aluminium plates precoated with silica gel 60F-254 as the stationary phase. The solvent system consisted of toluene-acetone (9:1, v/v). Densitometric analysis of guggulsterone was carried out in the absorbance mode at 250 nm. This system was found to give compact spots for E- and Z-guggulsterone, (Rf value of 0.38 +/- 0.02 and 0.46 +/- 0.02, respectively) following double development of chromatoplates with the same mobile phase. The drug undergoes degradation under acidic and basic conditions, oxidation, dry and wet heat treatment and photodegradation. All the peaks of degraded products were resolved from the standard guggulsterone with significantly different Rf values. As the method could effectively separate the drug from its degradation products, it can be employed as a stability indicating one.

HPTLC method for guggulsterone

A sensitive, selective, precise and robust high-performance thin-layer chromatographic method of analysis of E and Z stereoisomers of guggulsterone (the hypolipidemic agent in the gum-resin exudates of Commiphora mukul) both as a bulk drug and in formulations was developed and validated. The method employed TLC aluminium plates precoated with silica gel 60F-254 as the stationary phase. The solvent system consisted of toluene-acetone (9:1, v/v). Densitometric analysis of guggulsterone was carried out in the absorbance mode at 250 nm. This system was found to give compact spots for E- and Z-guggulsterone (Rf value of 0.38 +/- 0.02 and 0.46 +/- 0.02, respectively) following double development of chromatoplates with the same mobile phase. The linear regression analysis data for the calibration plots for E- and Z-guggulsterone showed good linear relationship with r2 = 0.9977 +/- 0.054 and 0.9975 +/- 0.068, respectively, in the concentration range of 100-6000 ng/spot. The mean value of slope and intercept were 0.11 +/- 0.006 and 0.11 +/- 0.005, 14.26 +/- 0.56 and 10.92 +/- 0.76, respectively, for E- and Z-guggulsterone. The method was validated for precision, robustness and recovery. The limit of detection and quantitation were 12, 10 and 24, 20 ng/spot, respectively, for E- and Z-guggulsterone. Statistical analysis proves that the method is repeatable and selective for the estimation of the said drug. Since the proposed mobile phase effectively resolves the E- and Z-isomers of guggulsterone, this HPTLC method can be applied for identification and quantitation of these isomers in herbal extracts and pharmaceutical dosage form.