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Kale R, Chaturvedi D, Dandekar P, Jain R. Analytical techniques for screening of cannabis and derivatives from human hair specimens. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2024; 16:1133-1149. [PMID: 38314866 DOI: 10.1039/d3ay00786c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
Cannabis and associated substances are some of the most frequently abused drugs across the globe, mainly due to their anxiolytic and euphorigenic properties. Nowadays, the analysis of hair samples has been given high importance in forensic and analytical sciences and in clinical studies because they are associated with a low risk of infection, do not require complicated storage conditions, and offer a broad window of non-invasive detection. Analysis of hair samples is very easy compared to the analysis of blood, urine, and saliva samples. This review places particular emphasis on methodologies of analyzing hair samples containing cannabis, with a special focus on the preparation of samples for analysis, which involves screening and extraction techniques, followed by confirmatory assays. Through this manuscript, we have presented an overview of the available literature on the screening of cannabis using mass spectroscopy techniques. We have presented a detailed overview of the advantages and disadvantages of this technique, to establish it as a suitable method for the analysis of cannabis from hair samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohit Kale
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai 400019, India.
| | - Deepa Chaturvedi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai 400019, India.
| | - Prajakta Dandekar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai 400019, India.
| | - Ratnesh Jain
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai 400019, India.
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2
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Funes DSH, Bonilla K, Baudelet M, Bridge C. Morphological and chemical profiling for forensic hair examination: A review of quantitative methods. Forensic Sci Int 2023; 346:111622. [PMID: 37001429 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2023.111622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 02/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
Abstract
Within the past two decades, there have been many studies for quantitative analysis on human hair samples. Microscopical and chemical analysis techniques have been used to analyze various aspects of hair regarding biological, chemical, anthropological, cosmetic, and forensic applications. Studies have attempted to develop quantification methods to increase the evidentiary value of hair in forensic casework. The literature reviewed in this paper provides some of the current techniques used for forensic examinations and quantitative methods. Although microscopical analysis has been scrutinized in the past, using chemical and microscopical techniques can provide a myriad of information. The extraction of DNA from hair provides high-value evidence; however, it may not be readily available and may yield inconclusive results. Hair analysis can be used for many forensic applications such as comparison, toxicology, and exposure analysis. In this article, we will review published research material regarding chemical and microscopical techniques for human hair analysis. Aspects considered for this review were the sample size requirement for analysis and the destructive nature of the instrumental method. This review will focus on both macro and micro quantitative methods for human hair analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S H Funes
- Department of Chemistry, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Kaitlyn Bonilla
- Department of Chemistry, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Mathieu Baudelet
- Department of Chemistry, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA; National Center for Forensic Science, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA; CREOL - The College of Optics and Photonics, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA.
| | - Candice Bridge
- Department of Chemistry, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA; National Center for Forensic Science, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA.
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Kékedy-Nagy L, Perry JM, Little SR, Llorens OY, Shih SCC. An electrochemical aptasensor for Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol detection in saliva on a microfluidic platform. Biosens Bioelectron 2023; 222:114998. [PMID: 36549107 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2022.114998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
We present a novel "on-off", cost-effective, rapid electrochemical aptasensor combined with a microfluidics cartridge system for the detection of Δ9-THC (Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol) in human saliva via differential pulse voltammetry. The assay relied on the competitive binding between the Δ9-THC and a soluble redox indicator methylene blue, using an aptamer selected via FRELEX. We found that the aptasensor can detected 1 nM of Δ9-THC in PBS in a three-electrode cell system, while the sensitivity and both the dissociation constant (Kd) and association constant (Kb) were dependent on the aptamer density. The aptamer also showed great affinity towards Δ9-THC when tested against cannabinol and cannabidiol. The same limit of detection of 1 nM in PBS was achieved in small volume samples (∼60 μL) using the aptamer-modified gold screen-printed electrodes combined with the microfluidic cartridge setup, however, the presence of 10% raw human saliva had a negative effect which manifested in a 10-fold increase in the LOD due to interfering elements. Filtering the saliva, improved the tested volume to 50% and the LOD to 5 nM of Δ9-THC which is lower than the concentrations associated with impairment (6.5-32 nM). The aptasensor showed a good storage capability up to 3 days, however, the reusability significantly dropped from 10 cycles (freshly prepared) to 5 cycles. The results clearly demonstrate the feasibility of the aptasensor platform with the microfluidics chamber towards a point-of-care testing application for the detection of Δ9-THC in saliva.
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Affiliation(s)
- László Kékedy-Nagy
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Concordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd West, Montreal, Quebec, H3G1M8, Canada; Centre for Applied Synthetic Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, Quebec, H4B1R6, Canada
| | - James M Perry
- Centre for Applied Synthetic Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, Quebec, H4B1R6, Canada; Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, Quebec, H4B1R6, Canada
| | - Samuel R Little
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Concordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd West, Montreal, Quebec, H3G1M8, Canada; Centre for Applied Synthetic Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, Quebec, H4B1R6, Canada
| | - Oriol Y Llorens
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Concordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd West, Montreal, Quebec, H3G1M8, Canada; Centre for Applied Synthetic Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, Quebec, H4B1R6, Canada
| | - Steve C C Shih
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Concordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd West, Montreal, Quebec, H3G1M8, Canada; Centre for Applied Synthetic Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, Quebec, H4B1R6, Canada; Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, Quebec, H4B1R6, Canada.
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Typek R, Holowinski P, Dawidowicz AL, Dybowski MP, Rombel M. Chromatographic analysis of CBD and THC after their acylation with blockade of compound transformation. Talanta 2022; 251:123777. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2022.123777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Raïch I, Rivas-Santisteban R, Lillo A, Lillo J, Reyes-Resina I, Nadal X, Ferreiro-Vera C, de Medina VS, Majellaro M, Sotelo E, Navarro G, Franco R. Similarities and differences upon binding of naturally occurring Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol-derivatives to cannabinoid CB 1 and CB 2 receptors. Pharmacol Res 2021; 174:105970. [PMID: 34758399 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2021.105970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
We have here assessed, using Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) for comparison, the effect of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (Δ9-THCA) and of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (Δ9-THCV) that is mediated by human versions of CB1, CB2, and CB1-CB2 receptor functional units, expressed in a heterologous system. Binding to the CB1 and CB2 receptors was addressed in living cells by means of a homogeneous assay. A biphasic competition curve for the binding to the CB2 receptor, was obtained for Δ9-THCV in cells expressing the two receptors. Signaling studies included cAMP level determination, activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway and ß-arrestin recruitment were performed. The signaling triggered by Δ9-THCA and Δ9-THCV via individual receptors or receptor heteromers disclosed differential bias, i.e. the bias observed using a given phytocannabinoid depended on the receptor (CB1, CB2 or CB1-CB2) and on the compound used as reference to calculate the bias factor (Δ9-THC, a selective agonist or a non-selective agonist). These results are consistent with different binding modes leading to differential functional selectivity depending on the agonist structure, and the state (monomeric or heteromeric) of the cannabinoid receptor. In addition, on studying Gi-coupling we showed that Δ9-THCV and Δ9-THCA and Δ9-THCV were able to revert the effect of a selective CB2 receptor agonist, but only Δ9-THCV, and not Δ9-THCA, reverted the effect of arachidonyl-2'-chloroethylamide (ACEA 100 nM) a selective agonist of the CB1 receptor. Overall, these results indicate that cannabinoids may have a variety of binding modes that results in qualitatively different effects depending on the signaling pathway that is engaged upon cannabinoid receptor activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iu Raïch
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, School of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CiberNed), Spanish National Institute of Health, Carlos iii, 28034 Madrid, Spain
| | - Rafael Rivas-Santisteban
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, School of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CiberNed), Spanish National Institute of Health, Carlos iii, 28034 Madrid, Spain
| | - Alejandro Lillo
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jaume Lillo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, School of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CiberNed), Spanish National Institute of Health, Carlos iii, 28034 Madrid, Spain
| | - Irene Reyes-Resina
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, School of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; RG Neuroplasticity, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Saxony-Anhalt 39118, Germany
| | - Xavier Nadal
- Ethnophytotech Research & Consulting S.L.U., Córdoba, Spain
| | | | | | - Maria Majellaro
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CIQUS) Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Eddy Sotelo
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CIQUS) Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Gemma Navarro
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; Institut de Neurociències de la Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Rafael Franco
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, School of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CiberNed), Spanish National Institute of Health, Carlos iii, 28034 Madrid, Spain; School of Chemistry. University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
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Quantification of Cannabinoids in Cultivars of Cannabis sp. by Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry. Chromatographia 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10337-021-04060-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Hill VA, Schaffer MI, Paulsen RB, Stowe GN. The Cannabinoids Tetrahydrocannabinol, Cannabinol, Cannabidiol, Tetrahydrocannabivarin, and 11-nor-9-carboxy-∆9-THC in Hair. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 46:487-493. [PMID: 34153110 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkab068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The cannabinoids tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN) and (-)-11-nor-9-carboxy-∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) were determined in 4773 hair samples. Confirmation of THC-COOH was by GC-MS/MS. Confirmation of THC, THCV, CBN and CBD was by LC-MS/MS on an AB Sciex QTRAP 6500+ LC-MS/MS. The purpose of this work was not to utilize any analyte other than THC-COOH as indicative of ingestion, but to assess the absence or presence, and relative concentrations, of the other cannabinoid analytes in hair of marijuana users vs. primarily cannabidiol users. In this regard, ten percent of samples contained significantly higher concentrations of CBD relative to THC than the other 90%. A concentration of CBD that is five times greater than that of THC was proposed as good evidence of primarily CBD ingestion.THC concentrations in the samples ranged from < LOD (5 pg/mg) to 47,808 pg/mg hair, varying widely in the relationship between parent THC and the metabolite THC-COOH. CBN was present in most samples, but concentrations relative to THC decreased with increasing THC concentrations. Only 26% of the samples contained THCV detectable by the method. When present, THCV concentrations averaged 1.77% of THC. A limitation of the study is the lack of subject histories to determine types and amounts of products used and mode of ingestion. Also, not all THC from external contamination may have been removed. Nonetheless, the data provide a useful guide as to what cannabinoids may be found in hair, at what concentrations, under conditions of marijuana vs. likely primarily CBD use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia A Hill
- Psychemedics Corporation, 5832 Uplander Way, Culver City, CA 90230
| | | | - Ryan B Paulsen
- Psychemedics Corporation, 5832 Uplander Way, Culver City, CA 90230
| | - G Neil Stowe
- Psychemedics Corporation, 5832 Uplander Way, Culver City, CA 90230
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Al-Zahrani MA, Al-Asmari AI, Al-Zahrani FF, Torrance HJ, Watson DG. Quantification of cannabinoids in human hair using a modified derivatization procedure and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Drug Test Anal 2021; 13:1095-1107. [PMID: 33491296 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this work was to develop and validate a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method for detecting of the main cannabinoids, cannabinol (CBN) and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and the primary metabolite 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) in hair samples. Extraction of the cannabinoids was carried out by a polymeric strong anion mixed-mode solid-phase extraction cartridge and then employing methanolic HCl followed by 2-fluoro-1-methylpyridinium-p-toluenesulfonate (FMP-TS) as a derivatization procedure of carboxyl and phenolic groups, respectively, offering enhanced sensitivity for the detection of THC-COOH in hair matrices. Formation of a methyl ester increased its lipophilicity and removed the negative charge on the carboxyl group. Calibration curves were prepared over the range of 0.02-4 pg/mg of hair for THC and CBN and 0.2-12 pg/mg of hair for THC-COOH. The extraction recovery was between 81% and 105% for all compounds. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were 2 and 20 pg/mg, respectively, for both CBN and THC and 0.1 and 0.2 pg/mg, respectively, for THC-COOH, which met the society of hair testing recommendation. Intra-assay and interassay precision were always lower than 4% and 11%, respectively for these cannabinoids, whereas intra-assay and interassay bias were between +14% and -18% and +15% and -12%, respectively. Twenty-seven hair specimens from cannabis users were investigated. The concentrations of CBN, THC and THC-COOH gave ranges of (0.022-2.562 ng/mg), (0.049-0.431 ng/mg) and (0.222-4.867 pg/mg), respectively. This new method of derivatization improves the LOD to ensure detection of the metabolite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mansour A Al-Zahrani
- Poison Control and Forensic Chemistry Center, Ministry of Health, Medina, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Farouq F Al-Zahrani
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Naïf College for National Security, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hazel J Torrance
- Forensic Medicine and Science, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - David G Watson
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
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Cobo-Golpe M, de-Castro-Ríos A, Cruz A, López-Rivadulla M, Lendoiro E. Determination and Distribution of Cannabinoids in Nail and Hair Samples. J Anal Toxicol 2020; 45:969-975. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Hair has been used for decades in toxicology as a biological matrix for long-term detection of substances. Nails are another keratinized matrix that is being studied as an alternative when hair cannot be obtained. Although cannabis is the most prevalent illicit drug in the world, cannabinoid distribution in nails compared with hair has been scarcely studied. In this work, we described two methods for the determination of cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and main metabolites of THC [11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH), 11-hydroxy-THC (OHTHC) and 8-β-11-dihydroxyTHC (diOHTHC)] in nail and hair samples. After an alkaline hydrolysis, samples were submitted to solid-phase extraction and analyzed by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS-MS). The methods were fully validated, with good linearity (r2 > 0.99) in the range of 20 to 100 to 20,000 pg/mg. No endogenous or exogenous interferences were found. Accuracy was from 99.5% to 109.8%, and imprecision was <6.9%. Ion suppression (up to −74.4%) was observed for all the analytes, except for diOHTHC at low concentrations in hair (46.1%). Extraction efficiency ranged from 21.5% to 84.5%. The methods were applied to matched nail and hair specimens from 23 cannabis users to study the incorporation and distribution of the cannabinoids into these matrices. Only CBD, CBN and THC were detected in the samples, with much higher concentrations in fingernails than in toenails and hair. Correlations between analyte concentrations in the different matrices and with reported drug consumption were studied. A preliminary cut-off for THC in toenails was calculated using the cut-off proposed by the Society of Hair Testing in hair for the identification of chronic cannabis use.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Cobo-Golpe
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Ana de-Castro-Ríos
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Angelines Cruz
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Manuel López-Rivadulla
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Elena Lendoiro
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
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Kori S. Cloud point extraction coupled with back extraction: a green methodology in analytical chemistry. Forensic Sci Res 2019; 6:19-33. [PMID: 34007513 PMCID: PMC8112826 DOI: 10.1080/20961790.2019.1643567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Revised: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, cloud point extraction (CPE) coupled with back extraction (BE) has been suggested as a promising alternative to liquid-liquid extraction. In CPE, non-ionic surfactants in aqueous solutions form micelles and the solution becomes turbid when heated to the cloud point temperature. Microwave- or ultrasonic-assisted BE can be performed after CPE and before injection of the sample for instrumental analysis by ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, high-performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. This article reviews selected published scientific research on the application of CPE-BE to the determination of alkaloids, drugs and organophosphorus compounds from several complex matrices. This method could be scaled-up for use in forensic science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shivpoojan Kori
- Chemistry, Biochemistry & Forensic Science, Amity School of Applied Sciences, Amity University Gurgaon (Manesar), Haryana, India
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11
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Shah I, Al-Dabbagh B, Salem AE, Hamid SAA, Muhammad N, Naughton DP. A review of bioanalytical techniques for evaluation of cannabis (Marijuana, weed, Hashish) in human hair. BMC Chem 2019; 13:106. [PMID: 31428743 PMCID: PMC6694587 DOI: 10.1186/s13065-019-0627-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis products (marijuana, weed, hashish) are among the most widely abused psychoactive drugs in the world, due to their euphorigenic and anxiolytic properties. Recently, hair analysis is of great interest in analytical, clinical, and forensic sciences due to its non-invasiveness, negligible risk of infection and tampering, facile storage, and a wider window of detection. Hair analysis is now widely accepted as evidence in courts around the world. Hair analysis is very feasible to complement saliva, blood tests, and urinalysis. In this review, we have focused on state of the art in hair analysis of cannabis with particular attention to hair sample preparation for cannabis analysis involving pulverization, extraction and screening techniques followed by confirmatory tests (e.g., GC–MS and LC–MS/MS). We have reviewed the literature for the past 10 years’ period with special emphasis on cannabis quantification using mass spectrometry. The pros and cons of all the published methods have also been discussed along with the prospective future of cannabis analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iltaf Shah
- 1Department of Chemistry, College of Science, UAEU, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Bayan Al-Dabbagh
- 1Department of Chemistry, College of Science, UAEU, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Alaa Eldin Salem
- 1Department of Chemistry, College of Science, UAEU, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Saber A A Hamid
- 1Department of Chemistry, College of Science, UAEU, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Neak Muhammad
- 1Department of Chemistry, College of Science, UAEU, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Declan P Naughton
- 2School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, Surrey, UK
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Usman M, Naseer A, Baig Y, Jamshaid T, Shahwar M, Khurshuid S. Forensic toxicological analysis of hair: a review. EGYPTIAN JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES 2019. [DOI: 10.1186/s41935-019-0119-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
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13
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The correlation between concentrations of zolpidem and benzodiazepines in segmental hair samples and use patterns. Forensic Sci Int 2018; 282:13-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.10.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Revised: 10/24/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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14
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Leghissa A, Hildenbrand ZL, Schug KA. A review of methods for the chemical characterization of cannabis natural products. J Sep Sci 2017; 41:398-415. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201701003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2017] [Revised: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Allegra Leghissa
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry; The University of Texas at Arlington; Arlington TX USA
| | | | - Kevin A. Schug
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry; The University of Texas at Arlington; Arlington TX USA
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15
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Fodor B, Molnár-Perl I. The role of derivatization techniques in the analysis of plant cannabinoids by gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Trends Analyt Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2017.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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16
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Temerdashev AZ, Grigoriev AM, Rybalchenko IV. Narcotic substances of natural origin and methods of their determination. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2015. [DOI: 10.1134/s1061934816010135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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17
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Tassoni G, Cippitelli M, Ottaviani G, Froldi R, Cingolani M. Detection of Cannabinoids by ELISA and GC–MS Methods in a Hair Sample Previously Used to Detect Other Drugs of Abuse. J Anal Toxicol 2015; 40:408-13. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkv120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Montesano C, Simeoni MC, Vannutelli G, Gregori A, Ripani L, Sergi M, Compagnone D, Curini R. Pressurized liquid extraction for the determination of cannabinoids and metabolites in hair: Detection of cut-off values by high performance liquid chromatography–high resolution tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2015; 1406:192-200. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2015.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2015] [Revised: 05/20/2015] [Accepted: 06/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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19
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Vogliardi S, Tucci M, Stocchero G, Ferrara SD, Favretto D. Sample preparation methods for determination of drugs of abuse in hair samples: A review. Anal Chim Acta 2015; 857:1-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2014.06.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2014] [Revised: 06/28/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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20
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Poetzsch M, Steuer AE, Roemmelt AT, Baumgartner MR, Kraemer T. Single Hair Analysis of Small Molecules Using MALDI-Triple Quadrupole MS Imaging and LC-MS/MS: Investigations on Opportunities and Pitfalls. Anal Chem 2014; 86:11758-65. [DOI: 10.1021/ac503193w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Poetzsch
- University of Zurich, Institute of Forensic Medicine, Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Winterthurerstrasse 190/52, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Andrea E. Steuer
- University of Zurich, Institute of Forensic Medicine, Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Winterthurerstrasse 190/52, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Andreas T. Roemmelt
- University of Zurich, Institute of Forensic Medicine, Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Winterthurerstrasse 190/52, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Markus R. Baumgartner
- University of Zurich, Institute of Forensic Medicine, Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Winterthurerstrasse 190/52, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Kraemer
- University of Zurich, Institute of Forensic Medicine, Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Winterthurerstrasse 190/52, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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Abstract
Alternative matrices are steadily gaining recognition as biological samples for toxicological analyses. Hair presents many advantages over traditional matrices, such as urine and blood, since it provides retrospective information regarding drug exposure, can distinguish between chronic and acute or recent drug use by segmental analysis, is easy to obtain, and has considerable stability for long periods of time. For this reason, it has been employed in a wide variety of contexts, namely to evaluate workplace drug exposure, drug-facilitated sexual assault, pre-natal drug exposure, anti-doping control, pharmacological monitoring and alcohol abuse. In this article, issues concerning hair structure, collection, storage and analysis are reviewed. The mechanisms of drug incorporation into hair are briefly discussed. Analytical techniques for simultaneous drug quantification in hair are addressed. Finally, representative examples of drug quantification using hair are summarized, emphasizing its potentialities and limitations as an alternative biological matrix for toxicological analyses.
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Poetzsch M, Baumgartner MR, Steuer AE, Kraemer T. Segmental hair analysis for differentiation of tilidine intake from external contamination using LC-ESI-MS/MS and MALDI-MS/MS imaging. Drug Test Anal 2014; 7:143-9. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2013] [Revised: 04/25/2014] [Accepted: 04/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Poetzsch
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology; ZIFM - Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich; Zurich (Switzerland)
| | - Markus R. Baumgartner
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology; ZIFM - Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich; Zurich (Switzerland)
| | - Andrea E. Steuer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology; ZIFM - Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich; Zurich (Switzerland)
| | - Thomas Kraemer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology; ZIFM - Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich; Zurich (Switzerland)
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Battista N, Sergi M, Montesano C, Napoletano S, Compagnone D, Maccarrone M. Analytical approaches for the determination of phytocannabinoids and endocannabinoids in human matrices. Drug Test Anal 2013; 6:7-16. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2013] [Revised: 09/05/2013] [Accepted: 09/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Battista
- Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food, Agriculture and Environment; University of Teramo; Teramo Italy
- European Center for Brain Research/Santa Lucia Foundation; Rome Italy
| | - Manuel Sergi
- Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food, Agriculture and Environment; University of Teramo; Teramo Italy
| | | | - Sabino Napoletano
- Department of Chemistry; Sapienza University of Rome; Rome Italy
- Department of Public Safety, Ministry of Interior; Forensic Service/GIPS; Ancona Italy
| | - Dario Compagnone
- Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food, Agriculture and Environment; University of Teramo; Teramo Italy
| | - Mauro Maccarrone
- European Center for Brain Research/Santa Lucia Foundation; Rome Italy
- Center of Integrated Research; Campus Bio-Medico University of Rome; Rome Italy
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Recent advances in LC–MS/MS analysis of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and its metabolites in biological matrices. Bioanalysis 2013; 5:2713-31. [DOI: 10.4155/bio.13.218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis is the most widely used illicit drug in the world. The pharmacological properties of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol also make it a promising molecule in the treatment of different pathologies. Understanding the PKs and PDs of this drug requires the determination of the concentration of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and metabolites in biological matrices. For this purpose many analytical methodologies using mass spectrometric detection have been developed. In recent years, LC–MS/MS has become the gold standard in analysis of tetrahydrocannabinol and its metabolites due to the high selectivity and sensitivity, but above all, due to the ability to determine free and conjugate analytes in one run.
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Míguez-Framil M, Cabarcos P, Tabernero MJ, Bermejo AM, Bermejo-Barrera P, Moreda-Piñeiro A. Matrix solid phase dispersion assisted enzymatic hydrolysis as a novel approach for cocaine and opiates isolation from human hair. J Chromatogr A 2013; 1316:15-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2013.09.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2013] [Revised: 09/16/2013] [Accepted: 09/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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26
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Moosmann B, Roth N, Auwärter V. Hair analysis for THCA-A, THC and CBN after passivein vivoexposure to marijuana smoke. Drug Test Anal 2013; 6:119-25. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2013] [Revised: 02/22/2013] [Accepted: 02/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bjoern Moosmann
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology Department; University Medical Center Freiburg; Albertstr. 9 79104 Freiburg Germany
- Hermann Staudinger Graduate School; University of Freiburg; Hebelstraße 27 79104 Freiburg Germany
| | - Nadine Roth
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology Department; University Medical Center Freiburg; Albertstr. 9 79104 Freiburg Germany
- Hermann Staudinger Graduate School; University of Freiburg; Hebelstraße 27 79104 Freiburg Germany
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology Department; University Medical Center Freiburg; Albertstr. 9 79104 Freiburg Germany
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Roth N, Moosmann B, Auwärter V. Development and validation of an LC-MS/MS method for quantification of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (THCA-A), THC, CBN and CBD in hair. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2013; 48:227-233. [PMID: 23378095 DOI: 10.1002/jms.3152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2012] [Revised: 12/05/2012] [Accepted: 12/06/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
For analysis of hair samples derived from a pilot study ('in vivo' contamination of hair by sidestream marijuana smoke), an LC-MS/MS method was developed and validated for the simultaneous quantification of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (THCA-A), Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabinol (CBN) and cannabidiol (CBD). Hair samples were extracted in methanol for 4 h under occasional shaking at room temperature, after adding THC-D(3), CBN-D(3), CBD-D(3) and THCA-A-D(3) as an in-house synthesized internal standard. The analytes were separated by gradient elution on a Luna C18 column using 0.1% HCOOH and ACN + 0.1% HCOOH. Data acquisition was performed on a QTrap 4000 in electrospray ionization-multi reaction monitoring mode. Validation was carried out according to the guidelines of the German Society of Toxicological and Forensic Chemistry (GTFCh). Limit of detection and lower limit of quantification were 2.5 pg/mg for THCA-A and 20 pg/mg for THC, CBN and CBD. A linear calibration model was applicable for all analytes over a range of 2.5 pg/mg or 20 pg/mg to 1000 pg/mg, using a weighting factor 1/x. Selectivity was shown for 12 blank hair samples from different sources. Accuracy and precision data were within the required limits for all analytes (bias between -0.2% and 6.4%, RSD between 3.7% and 11.5%). The dried hair extracts were stable over a time period of one to five days in the dark at room temperature. Processed sample stability (maximum decrease of analyte peak area below 25%) was considerably enhanced by adding 0.25% lecithin (w/v) in ACN + 0.1% HCOOH for reconstitution. Extraction efficiency for CBD was generally very low using methanol extraction. Hence, for effective extraction of CBD alkaline hydrolysis is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Roth
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Albertstraße 9, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
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28
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A novel derivatization approach for determination of ketamine in urine and plasma by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1264:104-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.09.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2012] [Revised: 09/01/2012] [Accepted: 09/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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29
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Andrews R, Paterson S. Production of identical retention times and mass spectra for {delta}9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol following derivatization with trifluoracetic anhydride with 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoroisopropanol*. J Anal Toxicol 2012; 36:61-5. [PMID: 22290754 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkr017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of perfluorinated anhydrides coupled with perfluoroalcohols for the derivatization of cannabinoids has been well documented. Derivatization is used in the detection of cannabinoids using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) with both electron impact ionization (EI) and negative chemical ionization (NCI). During method development for the analysis of cannabinoids in biological samples using GC-MS in EI and NCI mode, it was observed that when Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) were derivatized with trifluoroacetic anhydride (TFAA), the resultant derivatives produced the same retention times and mass spectra. This was not observed with the trimethylsilyl (TMS) derivatives of THC and CBD. This complication is due to the conversion of CBD to THC under acidic conditions. The work here highlights the unsuitability of the derivatizing reagent TFAA for the detection of THC and CBD. For the analysis of case samples, even if only THC is of interest, the presence of CBD cannot be excluded, and other derivatization techniques should be used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Andrews
- Toxicology Unit, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
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Minoli M, Angeli I, Ravelli A, Gigli F, Lodi F. Detection and quantification of 11-nor-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid in hair by GC/MS/MS in Negative Chemical Ionization mode (NCI) with a simple and rapid liquid/liquid extraction. Forensic Sci Int 2012; 218:49-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2011] [Accepted: 06/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Abstract
An increasing number of toxicology laboratories are choosing to expand the services they offer to include hair testing in response to customer demands. Hair provides the toxicologist with many advantages over conventional matrices in that it is easy to collect, is a robust and stable matrix that does not require refrigeration, and most importantly, provides a historical profile of an individual's exposure to drugs or analytes of interest. The establishment of hair as a complementary technique in forensic toxicology is a direct result of the success of the matrix in medicolegal cases and the wide range of applications. However, before introducing hair testing, laboratories must consider what additional requirements they will need that extend beyond simply adapting methodologies already validated for blood or urine. Hair presents many challenges with respect to the lack of available quality control materials, extensive sample handling protocols and low drug concentrations requiring greater instrument sensitivity. Unfortunately, a common pitfall involves over-interpretation of the findings and must be avoided.
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32
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Simultaneous analysis of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and 11-nor-9-carboxy-tetrahydrocannabinol in hair without different sample preparation and derivatization by gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2011; 55:1096-103. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2011.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2010] [Revised: 03/09/2011] [Accepted: 03/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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33
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A study on the concentrations of 11-nor-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid (THCCOOH) in hair root and whole hair. Forensic Sci Int 2011; 210:201-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2010] [Revised: 03/03/2011] [Accepted: 03/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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34
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Kim JY, Cheong JC, Lee JI, In MK. Improved gas chromatography–negative ion chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometric method for determination of 11-nor-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid in hair using mechanical pulverization and bead-assisted liquid–liquid extraction. Forensic Sci Int 2011; 206:e99-102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2010] [Revised: 12/19/2010] [Accepted: 01/13/2011] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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35
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Matrix solid-phase dispersion on column clean-up/pre-concentration as a novel approach for fast isolation of abuse drugs from human hair. J Chromatogr A 2010; 1217:6342-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2010.08.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2010] [Revised: 08/06/2010] [Accepted: 08/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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36
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Determination of different recreational drugs in hair by HS-SPME and GC/MS. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 397:2987-95. [PMID: 20582406 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-3882-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2010] [Revised: 05/25/2010] [Accepted: 05/26/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
A simple procedure combining headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) to detect and quantify amphetamines, ketamine, methadone, cocaine, cocaethylene and Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in hair is described. This procedure allows, in a single sample, even scant, analysis of drugs requiring different analytical conditions. A hair sample (10 mg) is washed and subjected to acidic hydrolysis. Then the HS-SPME is carried out (10 min at 90 degrees C) for amphetamines, ketamine, methadone, cocaine and cocaethylene. For derivatization of analytes, the fibre is introduced into the headspace of another closed vial containing acetic anhydride. After a chromatographic run, an alkaline hydrolysis for THC analysis is carried out in the same vial containing the hair sample previously used. For adsorption, the solid-phase microextraction needle is inserted into the headspace of the vial and the fibre is exposed for 30 min at 150 degrees C. For derivatization of analytes, the fibre is introduced into the headspace of another closed vial containing N-methyl-N-(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide. The GC/MS parameters were the same for both chromatographic runs. The linearity was proved to be between 0.01 and 10.00 ng/mg. The repeatability (intra- and interday precision) was below 10% as the coefficient of variation for all compounds. The accuracy, as the relative recovery, was 96.2-103.5% (spiked samples) and 88.6-101.7% (quality control sample). The limit of detection ranged from 0.01 to 0.12 ng/mg, and the limit of quantification ranged from 0.02 to 0.37 ng/mg. Application of the procedure to real hair samples is described. To the best of our knowledge, the proposed procedure combining HS-SPME and GC/MS is the first one be to successfully applied to the simultaneous determination of most of the common recreational drugs, including THC, in a single hair sample.
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Emídio ES, de Menezes Prata V, de Santana FJM, Dórea HS. Hollow fiber-based liquid phase microextraction with factorial design optimization and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for determination of cannabinoids in human hair. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2010; 878:2175-83. [PMID: 20655815 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2010.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2010] [Revised: 06/02/2010] [Accepted: 06/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
A new method, based on hollow fiber liquid-phase microextraction (HF-LPME) and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MSMS), was developed for determination of Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN) in samples of human hair. Since hair is a solid matrix, the samples were subjected to alkaline digestion using NaOH. The aqueous solutions obtained were extracted using a 6cm polypropylene fiber (600microm i.d., 200microm wall thickness, 0.2microm pore size) for each extraction. A 2(5-1) fractional factorial design for screening, and a central composite design for optimization of significant variables, was applied during development of the extraction method. The variables evaluated were the type of extraction solvent, pH, stirring speed, extraction time, and acceptor phase volume. The optimized conditions for the proposed extraction procedure were 10mg of hair sample; 20microL of butyl acetate; aqueous (pH 14) donor phase containing 6.8% NaCl; 600rpm stirring speed; 20min extraction time. A linear response was obtained in the ranges 1-500pgmg(-1) (CBD and CBN) and 20-500pgmg(-1) (THC), with regression coefficients >0.99. Precision, determined as the relative standard deviation, was 3.3-8.9% (intra-day) and 4.4-13.7% (inter-day). Absolute recoveries varied in the ranges 4.4-4.8% (CBD), 7.6-8.9% (THC) and 7.7-8.2% (CBN). Limits of detection (LOD, S/N=3) and quantification (LOQ, S/N=10) were 0.5-15pgmg(-1) and 1-20pgmg(-1), respectively. The method was successfully used to determine CBD, THC and CBN in hair samples from patients in a drug dependency rehabilitation center. Concentrations varied in the ranges 1-18pgmg(-1) (CBD), 20-232pgmg(-1) (THC) and 9-107pgmg(-1) (CBN), confirming the suitability of the method for monitoring studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elissandro Soares Emídio
- Laboratório de Análise de Compostos Orgânicos Poluentes, Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, Av. Marechal Rondon, s/n., Jardim Rosa Elze, 49100-000 São Cristóvão, SE, Brazil
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Emídio ES, Prata VDM, Dórea HS. Validation of an analytical method for analysis of cannabinoids in hair by headspace solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography-ion trap tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 2010; 670:63-71. [PMID: 20685418 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2010.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2010] [Revised: 04/11/2010] [Accepted: 04/12/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The development of an analytical method for the determination of Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN) in samples of human hair is described. Samples were subjected to a procedure based on the combination of headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) with gas chromatography linked with mass spectrometry operating in tandem mode (GC-MS/MS). A 10 mg aliquot of sample was firstly decontaminated using petroleum ether, deionized water and dichloromethane (2 mL of each solvent), for 10 min under sonication, and then digested in alkaline solution (1 mol L(-1) NaOH). The method variables evaluated were pH, mass of hair, fiber type, extraction temperature, desorption time, ionic strength, pre-equilibrium time and extraction time. Parameters concerning operation of the tandem mode MS/MS were also assessed and optimized. Validation of the method demonstrated excellent linearity in the range 0.1-8.0 ng mg(-1), with regression coefficients better than 0.994. Precision was determined using two different concentrations (upper and lower limits of the linear range), and RSD values were between 6.6 and 16.4%. Absolute recoveries (measured in triplicate) were in the range 1.1-8.7%, and limits of detection and quantification were 0.007-0.031 ng mg(-1) and 0.012-0.062 ng mg(-1), respectively. The LOQ for THC (0.062 ng mg(-1)) was below the cut-off value (LOQ < or = 0.1 ng mg(-1)) established by the Society of Hair Testing (SOHT), the Society of Toxicological and Forensic Chemistry (STFCh) and the Société Française de Toxicologie Analytique (SFTA). The optimized SPME method was applied in analysis of hair samples from Cannabis drug users, showing that CBN and CBD were present in all samples analyzed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elissandro Soares Emídio
- Laboratório de Análise de Compostos Orgânicos Poluentes, Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, 49100-000, Av. Marechal Rondon, s/n. Jardim Rosa Elze, São Cristóvão, SE, Brazil
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39
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Hair analysis for Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A--new insights into the mechanism of drug incorporation of cannabinoids into hair. Forensic Sci Int 2010; 196:10-3. [PMID: 20129747 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2009] [Accepted: 08/31/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Differentiation between external contamination and incorporation of drugs or their metabolites from inside the body via blood, sweat or sebum is a general issue in hair analysis and of high concern when interpreting analytical results. In hair analysis for cannabinoids the most common target is Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), sometimes cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN) are determined additionally. After repeated external contamination by cannabis smoke these analytes are known to be found in hair even after performing multiple washing steps. A widely accepted strategy to unequivocally prove active cannabis consumption is the analysis of hair extracts for the oxidative metabolite 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THC-COOH). Although the acidic nature of this metabolite suggests a lower rate of incorporation into the hair matrix compared to THC, it is not fully understood up to now why hair concentrations of THC-COOH are generally found to be much lower (mostly <10 pg/mg) than the corresponding THC concentrations. Delta9-Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (THCA A) is the preliminary end product of the THC biosynthesis in the cannabis plant. Unlike THC it is non-psychoactive and can be regarded as a 'precursor' of THC being largely decarboxylated when heated or smoked. The presented work shows for the first time that THCA A is not only detectable in blood and urine of cannabis consumers but also in THC positive hair samples. A pilot experiment performed within this study showed that after oral intake of THCA A on a regular basis no relevant incorporation into hair occurred. It can be concluded that THCA A in hair almost exclusively derives from external contamination e.g. by side stream smoke. Elevated temperatures during the analytical procedure, particularly under alkaline conditions, can lead to decarboxylation of THCA A and accordingly increase THC concentrations in hair. Additionally, it has to be kept in mind that in hair samples tested positive for THCA A at least a part of the 'non-artefact' THC probably derives from external contamination as well, because in condensate of cannabis smoke both THC and THCA A are present in relevant amounts. External contamination by side stream smoke could therefore explain the great differences in THC and THC-COOH hair concentrations commonly found in cannabis users.
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Roche AM, Bywood P, Pidd K, Freeman T, Steenson T. Drug testing in Australian schools: Policy implications and considerations of punitive, deterrence and/or prevention measures. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2009; 20:521-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2008] [Revised: 03/25/2009] [Accepted: 04/02/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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42
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Determination of hydroxylated metabolites of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in human hair by gas chromatography–negative chemical ionization mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2009; 1216:6012-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2009.05.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2009] [Revised: 05/22/2009] [Accepted: 05/26/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Laker CJ. A literature review to assess the reliability and validity of measures appropriate for use in research to evaluate the efficacy of a brief harm reduction strategy in reducing cannabis use among people with schizophrenia in acute inpatient settings. J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs 2008; 15:777-83. [PMID: 18844804 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2850.2008.01297.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
There is a growing body of evidence looking at the effects of cannabis use on those with schizophrenia with concerning results. This has led to the development of a number of interventions that are intended to improve outcomes for this client group. However, the methodological quality of some dual diagnosis research has been questioned in reviews for using outcome measures that are not tested as reliable and valid in the population for which they are intended for use. This literature review assesses the self-report measures that have been reliability and validity tested in populations of people with schizophrenia who use cannabis and reports on their appropriateness for use in further research studies. An overview of the most appropriate biochemical tests for cannabis is also given.
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Affiliation(s)
- C J Laker
- Health Services Research, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College, London, UK.
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Thomas A, Widmer C, Hopfgartner G, Staub C. Fast gas chromatography and negative-ion chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry for forensic analysis of cannabinoids in whole blood. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2007; 45:495-503. [PMID: 17913432 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2007.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2007] [Revised: 08/13/2007] [Accepted: 08/16/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The present work describes a fast gas chromatography/negative-ion chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometric assay (Fast GC/NICI-MS/MS) for analysis of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-OH) and 11-nor-9-carboxy-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) in whole blood. The cannabinoids were extracted from 500 microL of whole blood by a simple liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) and then derivatized by using trifluoroacetic anhydride (TFAA) and hexafluoro-2-propanol (HFIP) as fluorinated agents. Mass spectrometric detection of the analytes was performed in the selected reaction-monitoring mode on a triple quadrupole instrument after negative-ion chemical ionization. The assay was found to be linear in the concentration range of 0.5-20 ng/mL for THC and THC-OH, and of 2.5-100 ng/mL for THC-COOH. Repeatability and intermediate precision were found less than 12% for all concentrations tested. Under standard chromatographic conditions, the run cycle time would have been 15 min. By using fast conditions of separation, the assay analysis time has been reduced to 5 min, without compromising the chromatographic resolution. Finally, a simple approach for estimating the uncertainty measurement is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélien Thomas
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Geneva, Avenue de Champel 9, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
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Míguez-Framil M, Moreda-Piñeiro A, Bermejo-Barrera P, López P, Tabernero MJ, Bermejo AM. Improvements on Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Human Hair for Illicit Drug Determination by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2007; 79:8564-70. [DOI: 10.1021/ac071337n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Martha Míguez-Framil
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Bromatology, Faculty of Chemistry, and Department of Legal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Antonio Moreda-Piñeiro
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Bromatology, Faculty of Chemistry, and Department of Legal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Pilar Bermejo-Barrera
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Bromatology, Faculty of Chemistry, and Department of Legal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Patricia López
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Bromatology, Faculty of Chemistry, and Department of Legal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - María Jesús Tabernero
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Bromatology, Faculty of Chemistry, and Department of Legal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Ana María Bermejo
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Bromatology, Faculty of Chemistry, and Department of Legal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
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46
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Gray T, Huestis M. Bioanalytical procedures for monitoring in utero drug exposure. Anal Bioanal Chem 2007; 388:1455-65. [PMID: 17370066 PMCID: PMC2714867 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-007-1228-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2007] [Revised: 02/14/2007] [Accepted: 02/22/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Drug use by pregnant women has been extensively associated with adverse mental, physical, and psychological outcomes in their exposed children. This manuscript reviews bioanalytical methods for in utero drug exposure monitoring for common drugs of abuse in urine, hair, oral fluid, blood, sweat, meconium, amniotic fluid, umbilical cord tissue, nails, and vernix caseosa; neonatal matrices are particularly emphasized. Advantages and limitations of testing different maternal and neonatal biological specimens including ease and invasiveness of collection, and detection time frames, sensitivities, and specificities are described, and specific references for available analytical methods included. Future research involves identifying metabolites unique to fetal drug metabolism to improve detection rates of in utero drug exposure and determining relationships between the amount, frequency, and timing of drug exposure and drug concentrations in infant biological fluids and tissues. Accurate bioanalytical procedures are vital to defining the scope of and resolving this important public health problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Gray
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Marilyn Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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47
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Chou SL, Ling YC, Yang MH, Pai CY. Determination of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in indoor air as an indicator of marijuana cigarette smoking using adsorbent sampling and in-injector thermal desorption gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 2007; 598:103-9. [PMID: 17693313 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2007.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2007] [Revised: 06/17/2007] [Accepted: 07/04/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The marijuana leaves are usually mixed with tobaccos and smoked at amusement places in Taiwan. Recently, for investigation-legal purposes, the police asked if we can identify the marijuana smoke in a KTV stateroom (a private room at the entertainment spot for singing, smoking, alcohol drinking, etc.) without marijuana residues. A personal air-sampler pump fitted with the GC liner-tube packed with Tenax-TA adsorbent was used for air sampling. The GC-adsorbent tube was placed in the GC injector port and desorbed directly, followed by GC-MS analysis for the determination of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta9-THC) in indoor air. The average desorption efficiency and limit of detection for delta9-THC were 89% and 0.1 microg m(-3), respectively, approximately needing 1.09 mg of marijuana leaves smoked in an unventilated closed room (3.0 m x 2.4 m x 2.7 m) to reach this level. The mean delta9-THC contained in the 15 marijuana plants seized from diverse locations was measured to be 0.32%. The delta9-THC in room air can be successfully identified from mock marijuana cigarettes, mixtures of marijuana and tobacco, and an actual case. The characteristic delta9-THC peak in chromatogram can serve as the indicator of marijuana. Positive result suggests marijuana smoking at the specific scene in the recent past, facilitating the formulation of further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su-Lien Chou
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Environmental Sciences, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan, ROC
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Skopp G, Strohbeck-Kuehner P, Mann K, Hermann D. Deposition of cannabinoids in hair after long-term use of cannabis. Forensic Sci Int 2007; 170:46-50. [PMID: 17098389 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2006.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2006] [Revised: 08/26/2006] [Accepted: 09/11/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Hair analysis has shown great potential in the detection and control of drug use. Whether an assay is of quantitative value roughly corresponding to the amount of drug consumed, is still a matter of debate. The present investigation was aimed at a possible relationship between the cannabinoid concentration in hair and the cumulative dose in regular users of cannabis. Hair samples from the vertex region of the scalp were obtained from 12 male regular users of cannabis, and 10 male subjects with no experience of cannabis served as controls. None of the subjects had his hair permed, bleached or colored. Cannabis users provided information on drug use such as the current cannabis dose per day, the cumulative cannabis dose of the last 3 months, as well as the frequency of cannabis use during the last year. The concentration of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabinol (CBN) and cannabidiol (CBD) in hair was determined using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Cannabinoids were present in any hair sample of cannabis users, but were not detectable in control specimens. An increase in the amount of cannabinoids in hair with increasing dose was evident. The concentration of major cannabinoids (sum of THC, CBD and CBN) was significantly correlated to either the reported cumulative cannabis dose during the last 3 months or to the cannabis use during the last 3 months estimated from the daily dose and the frequency per year (r=0.68 or 0.71, p=0.023 or 0.014). A significant relationship between THC and the amount of cannabis used could not be established. As a conclusion, the sum of major cannabinoids in hair of regular users may provide a better measure of drug use than THC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gisela Skopp
- Institute of Legal Medicine and Traffic Medicine, Ruprecht-Karls University, Voss-Str. 2, 69115 Heidelberg, Germany
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Musshoff F, Madea B. Analytical pitfalls in hair testing. Anal Bioanal Chem 2007; 388:1475-94. [PMID: 17486322 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-007-1288-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2007] [Revised: 03/23/2007] [Accepted: 03/28/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This review focuses on possible pitfalls in hair testing procedures. Knowledge of such pitfalls is useful when developing and validating methods, since it can be used to avoid wrong results as well as wrong interpretations of correct results. In recent years, remarkable advances in sensitive and specific analytical techniques have enabled the analysis of drugs in alternative biological specimens such as hair. Modern analytical procedures for the determination of drugs in hair specimens - mainly by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) - are reviewed and critically discussed. Many tables containing information related to this topic are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Musshoff
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Bonn, Stiftsplatz 12, 53111 Bonn, Germany.
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50
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Nadulski T, Pragst F. Simple and sensitive determination of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and cannabinol in hair by combined silylation, headspace solid phase microextraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2007; 846:78-85. [PMID: 16971195 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2006.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2006] [Revised: 08/01/2006] [Accepted: 08/11/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A new method for determination of Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN) in hair based on alkaline hair hydrolysis, extraction by iso-octane, combined derivatization with N,O-bis-(trimethylsilyl)-trifluoroacetamide and headspace solid phase microextraction of the extract residue, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was developed and evaluated. The limits of detection of the three compounds were 0.01-0.02 ng/mg. The method was routinely applied to more than 250 hair samples. In 77 positive samples, the concentrations ranged from LOD to 4.2 ng/mg for THC (mean 0.49 ng/mg), to 12.1 ng/mg for CBD (mean 0.37 ng/mg) and to 0.85 ng/mg for CBN (mean 0.12 ng/mg) using a sample amount of 30 mg. The frequently observed increase of the segmental drug concentrations from proximal to distal is explained by progressive accumulation in the hair shaft from sebum or side stream smoke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Nadulski
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University Hospital Charité, 14195 Berlin, Hittorfstr. 18, Germany
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