Narcotics at street level in Denmark. A prospective investigation from 1995 to 2000

Impurities, adulterants and cutting agents in cocaine as potential candidates for retrospective mining of GC-MS data

Cocaine is one of the most widely used illicit drugs worldwide. Cocaine powders seized by the Police may contain numerous other substances besides the drug itself. These can be impurities originating from the coca plant or the production process, or be purposely added to the drug formulation as adulterants and cutting agents. In forensic laboratories, identification of cocaine is routinely done through GC-MS analysis, but other components are often ignored even if the method allows for their detection. Yet, they can provide valuable insight into the history of a seizure and its potential connection to other samples. To explore this idea, an extensive review of common impurities and adulterants encountered in cocaine is presented. Based on their incidence, concentration in the end product and compatibility with GC-MS methods, their overall usefulness as candidates for the statistical investigation of existing forensic data is evaluated. The impurities cis- and trans-cinnamoylcocaine, tropacocaine, norcocaine and N-benzoylnormethylecgonine as well as the adulterants lidocaine, procaine, tetracaine, benzocaine, caffeine, acetylsalicylic acid, phenacetin, ibuprofen, levamisole, hydroxyzine and diltiazem are promising candidates to provide additional forensic intelligence. Future research on optimized routine GC-MS methods, signal reproducibility, comparison, statistics and databases is suggested to facilitate this concept. Ultimately, such an approach may significantly advance the amount of information that is extracted from routine casework data, elucidate developments in the cocaine markets in the past and facilitate Police work in the future. Preliminary assessment of existing data from the forensic laboratory of the Amsterdam Police has been included to show that the detection of the identified target impurities is feasible, and that small adjustments to the analysis method could significantly increase the detectability of these analytes in prospective drug screenings. Forensic intelligence based on retrospective data mining of cocaine containing casework samples may thus be realized with minimal additional laboratory efforts by using already available instrumentation, samples and data.

Drug testing in Europe: monitoring results of the Trans European Drug Information (TEDI) project

Drug testing is a harm reduction strategy that has been adopted by certain countries in Europe. Drug users are able to hand in their drugs voluntarily for chemical analysis of composition and dose. Drug users will be alerted about dangerous test results by the drug testing systems directly and through warning campaigns. An international collaborative effort was launched to combine data of drug testing systems, called the Trans European Drug Information (TEDI) project. Drug testing systems of Spain, Switzerland, Belgium, Austria, Portugal, and the Netherlands participated in this project. This study presents results of some of the main illicit drugs encountered: cocaine, ecstasy and amphetamine and also comments on new psychoactive substances (NPS) detected between 2008 and 2013. A total of 45 859 different drug samples were analyzed by TEDI. The drug markets of the distinct European areas showed similarities, but also some interesting differences. For instance, purity of cocaine and amphetamine powders was generally low in Austria, whilst high in Spain and the Netherlands. And the market for ecstasy showed a contrast: whereas in the Netherlands and Switzerland there was predominantly a market for ecstasy tablets, in Portugal and Spain MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) crystals were much more prevalent. Also, some NPS appearing in ecstasy seemed more specific for one country than another. In general, prevalence of NPS clearly increased between 2008 and 2013. Drug testing can be used to generate a global picture of drug markets and provides information about the pharmacological contents of drugs for the population at risk. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Qualitative, quantitative and temporal study of cutting agents for cocaine and heroin over 9 years

Forensic laboratories mainly focus on the qualification and the quantitation of the illicit drug under analysis as both aspects are used for judiciary purposes. Therefore, information related to cutting agents (adulterants and diluents) detected in illicit drugs is limited in the forensic literature. This article discusses the type and frequency of adulterants and diluents detected in more than 6000 cocaine specimens and 3000 heroin specimens, confiscated in western Switzerland from 2006 to 2014. The results show a homogeneous and quite unchanging adulteration for heroin, while for cocaine it could be characterised as heterogeneous and relatively dynamic. Furthermore, the results indicate that dilution affects more cocaine than heroin. Therefore, the results provided by this study tend to reveal differences between the respective structures of production or distribution of cocaine and heroin. This research seeks to promote the systematic analysis of cutting agents by forensic laboratories. Collecting and processing data related to the presence of cutting agents in illicit drug specimens produces relevant information to understand and to compare the structure of illicit drug markets.

Linking the pharmacological content of ecstasy tablets to the subjective experiences of drug users

RATIONALE

Most studies on the subjective effects of ecstasy are based on the assumption that the substance that was taken is 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). However, many tablets sold as ecstasy contain other substances and MDMA in varying doses. So far, few attempts have been made to take this into account while assessing subjective effects.

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to link the pharmacological content of tablets sold as ecstasy to the subjective experiences reported by ecstasy users.

METHODS

Self-reported effects on ecstasy tablets were available from 5,786 drug users who handed in their tablets for chemical analysis at the Drug Information and Monitoring System (DIMS) in the Netherlands. Logistic regression was employed to link the pharmacological content of ecstasy tablets to the self-reported subjective effects and compare effects with MDMA to other substances present.

RESULTS

MDMA showed a strong association with desirable subjective effects, unparalleled by any other psychoactive substance. However, the association of MDMA was dose-dependent, with higher doses (>120 mg/tablet) likely to evoke more adverse effects. The novel psychostimulants mephedrone and p-fluoroamphetamine were considered relatively desirable, whereas meta-chlorophenylpiperazine (mCPP) and p-methoxymethamphetamine (PMMA) were strongly associated with adverse subjective effects. Also, 3,4-methylene-dioxyamphetamine (MDA) and benzylpiperazine (BZP) were not appreciated as replacement for MDMA.

CONCLUSION

Linking the pharmacological content of ecstasy sold on the street to subjective experiences contributes to a better understanding of the wide range of subjective effects ascribed to ecstasy and provides a strong rationale for the prolonged endurance of MDMA as the key ingredient of the ecstasy market.

Coca-paste seized samples characterization: chemical analysis, stimulating effect in rats and relevance of caffeine as a major adulterant

Coca-paste (CP) is a drug of abuse that so far has not been extensively characterized. CP is an intermediate product of the cocaine alkaloid extraction process from coca leaves, hence it has a high content of cocaine base mixed with other chemical substances (impurities) and it is probably adulterated when it reaches the consumers. Despite its high prevalence and distribution through South America, little is known about its effects on the central nervous system. In the present study, a chemical analysis of CP samples from different police seizures was performed to determine the cocaine base content and the presence and content of impurities and adulterants. Some CP representative samples were selected to study the effects on the locomotor activity induced after acute systemic administration in rats as a measure of its stimulant action. The behavioral response was compared to equivalent doses of cocaine. As expected, cocaine was the main component in most of the CP samples assayed. Caffeine was the only active adulterant detected. Interestingly, several CP samples elicited a higher stimulant effect compared to that observed after cocaine when administered at equivalent doses of cocaine base. Combined treatment of cocaine and caffeine, as surrogate of different CP samples mimicked their stimulant effect. We demonstrated that cocaine and caffeine are the main components responsible for the CP-induced stimulant action while the contribution of the impurities was imperceptible.

Adulterants in illicit drugs: a review of empirical evidence

Widespread public perception is that illicit drugs contain substances that are a serious risk to health, even though adulterants are often not considered in clinical or forensic toxicology. This review attempts to present an evidence-based overview of adulterants in illicit drugs, and their associated toxicity. Adulterants are deliberately added to increase bulk, enhance or mimic a pharmacological effect, or to facilitate drug delivery. Those present unintentionally are as a result of poor manufacturing techniques. From the reports gathered, adulterants are predominantly substances which are readily available, commonly being caffeine, procaine, paracetamol, and sugars. These are likely to have minimal impact on users' health at low dosages. Other adulterants, particularly in injectable drugs, have the potential to cause serious health issues, but the quantities reported, such as strychnine in heroin, are not life-threatening. The most commonly identified bacterial contaminants identified are Bacillus and Clostridium species. When death or serious illness due to adulteration occurs, circulation of information is particularly vital, such as in the USA regarding heroin and cocaine adulterated with fentanyl, and in Scotland recently regarding anthrax contaminated heroin. The complex interactions of supply, demand, and control of illicit drugs have a tangible impact on their adulteration. Continuing vigilance and the circulation of information is, therefore, desirable as a public health issue. As part of that strategy, analyses performed for adulterants needs to be encouraged, which are considerably limited in number and scope at the moment.

Composition, purity and perceived quality of street cocaine in France

BACKGROUND

There is little knowledge about the composition and cocaine content of street cocaine, nor about what users know about it.

METHOD

373 cocaine users were face to face interviewed between May and December 2006 about the last sample of cocaine they had consumed and residual amounts of the substances actually used were analysed using gas phase chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Users rated the perceived quality of their product ("good", "average", "poor"), its "estimated percentage of cocaine" and any cutting agents it contained. Price, quantity, place of purchase (street, dealer's premise, appointment), mode of administration (sniffing, injection, smoking) and the supposed nature of the sample (natural, synthetic, no distinction ever made) were also reported. Perceived quality was modelled using multivariate multinomial regression.

RESULTS

The median cocaine content was 22%. Altogether, 343 samples contained cocaine, among which 75% contained at least one adulterant. The most frequently occurring were phenacetin (54% of the samples), caffeine (17%), paracetamol (14%), diltiazem and lidocaïne (11%). Users showed relatively poor discrimination concerning cocaine purity, and only 12% reported at least one of the detected adulterants. The major determinants of their perception of cocaine quality were: place of purchase, natural origin, price per gram, actual cocaine content and mode of administration.

CONCLUSION

The composition of street cocaine is largely unknown to users. Users' perceptions of cocaine quality are based partly on false beliefs and certain administration modes. This may contribute to favouring very risky practices. The effects of adulterants on users' health should be investigated.

Determination of dimethoxyphenethylamine derivatives in urine by deuterium labeled internal standards

The use of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) in forensic analysis is increasing. To exploit fully the capabilities of MS, labeled standards, that can be used to improve the performance of the quantitative analysis, and to increase accuracy and precision, are required. A series of deuterated internal standards, corresponding to the 2C-series of phenethylamine derivatives, including 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine-d6 (2C-B), 4-chloro- 2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine-d6 (2C-C), 4-iodo-2,5-dimethoxy-phenethylamine-d6 (2C-I), 4-ethylthio-2,5-dimethoxy-phenethylamine-d6 (2C-T-2) and 2,5-dimethoxy-4-n-propylthiophenethylamine-d6 (2C-T-7), were synthesized. These deuterated compounds were used to analyze for the corresponding unlabeled compounds in urine. The analysis was performed using GC-MS, with the selected ion monitoring (SIM) technique, whereby good results were achieved.

Efficiency evaluation of a police operation to fight the drug plague: distribution unit weight as an objective index

Lod, a city near Tel-Aviv, is considered the main drug distribution center in Israel. A major police undercover operation in Lod, lasting close to a year, was terminated in May 2003. The success or failure of such an operation is frequently measured by the number of arrests made, the hierarchical level of the dealers arrested, the number of drug stations closed down, and the decrease in heroin seizures following the operation. In this work we suggest using an additional parameter, which has a scientific, objective basis, namely, comparing the changes in the average user weight unit ("dose") before and after the operation. We found that prior to the operation the average weight per unit was 1.1 g. Three months after the operation terminated the average weight per unit had decreased to 0.8 g and remained there for at least 4 months before rising again.

A developmental comparison of the neurobehavioral effects of ecstasy (MDMA)

The entactogen +/-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or ecstasy) is a popular recreational drug among college, high school, and, occasionally, middle school students. Preclinical research examining the acute and long-term effects of MDMA has predominately been conducted in reproductively mature subjects but there has been increasing interest in adolescent and in utero exposure. This review examines the acute and long-term responses to MDMA during perinatal, adolescent, and adult periods. The ability of MDMA to alter core body temperature emerges gradually during ontogeny while a reduction in body weight is evident at all ages. Learning and working-memory are also altered independent of the developmental stage of exposure. Current evidence suggests adults are more sensitive to the long-term serotonin depletions following MDMA but younger ages also exhibit substantial and rapid neuroplasticity. Sexually dimorphic MDMA responses have been identified for the acute hyperthermic and motoric effects of MDMA with pubescent males being especially susceptible. Several physiological, behavioral, and neurochemical MDMA issues requiring further study are also outlined.

Simultaneous determination of nineteen hallucinogenic tryptamines/β-calbolines and phenethylamines using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography–electrospray ionisation-mass spectrometry

To investigate the trend of non-controlled drugs of abuse, simultaneous analytical methods were developed using GC-MS and LC-ESI-MS for 8 tryptamines/beta-carbolines, 6 phenethylamines of typically non-controlled substances in Japan, and, additionally, five legally controlled tryptamines and phenethylamines originally found in fungi or plants. Moreover, the proposed methods were applied to analyses of these drugs in 99 kinds of products (a total number of 123 products purchased at adult shops or via the Internet over the past 2 years in Japan), which potentially advertised psychotropic/psychoactive effects. The samples were extracted with methanol under ultrasonication. After centrifugation, the extracts were filtered prior to injections. GC-MS analysis was performed using a DB-5MS capillary column. Regarding the LC-ESI-MS analysis; the separation of the target drugs was optimized on an ODS column in acetonitrile/MeOH (7:3)-10 mM ammonium formate buffer (pH 3.5)/acetonitrile (95:5) by a linear gradient program and a quantitative analysis was carried out by the monitoring of each [M+H]+ in the positive ion mode of ESI-MS. As a result of the analyses using GC-MS and LC-ESI-MS, 5-MeO-DIPT (the synthetic substance known by the street name "Foxy") was found in 8 out of the 99 kinds of products. Additionally, AMT (from brown powder), DMT (from dried plant), harmine and harmaline (from dried plant) were also found in some of the 99 products. These analytical methods could be useful for the investigation of the distribution of the non-controlled psychotropic tryptamines/beta-carbolines and phenethylamines in the market.

Party drugs: properties, prevalence, patterns, and problems

This review summarizes the latest literature on "party" or "club" drugs, defined as MDMA, GHB, ketamine, and Rohypnol, as published from 2002 to early 2005. Club drugs have been categorized as being used at raves and dance parties. The literature shows that each drug has different properties, users, and settings. Each drug has different adverse effects and requires different acute care protocols. Although these drugs were identified early, scientific information about them, including the toxicological tests to identify them, is still evolving. Increasing numbers of studies on the short- and long-term effects of these drugs on humans are being published, but because of limitations on research using human subjects, they may not always be as rigorous as desired and can be cited by drug users to discredit findings of harm. The lack of research-based information on these drugs has led to the emergence of web sites that may or may not provide accurate data. Evaluated chemical dependency treatment protocols using the latest research for each of these different drugs are needed.