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Lv G, Wang J, Lian S, Wang H, Wu R. The Global Epidemiology of Bovine Leukemia Virus: Current Trends and Future Implications. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:297. [PMID: 38254466 PMCID: PMC10812804 DOI: 10.3390/ani14020297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Revised: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is a retrovirus that causes enzootic bovine leucosis (EBL), which is the most significant neoplastic disease in cattle. Although EBL has been successfully eradicated in most European countries, infections continue to rise in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Japan, and the United States. BLV imposes a substantial economic burden on the cattle industry, particularly in dairy farming, as it leads to a decline in animal production performance and increases the risk of disease. Moreover, trade restrictions on diseased animals and products between countries and regions further exacerbate the problem. Recent studies have also identified fragments of BLV nucleic acid in human breast cancer tissues, raising concerns for public health. Due to the absence of an effective vaccine, controlling the disease is challenging. Therefore, it is crucial to accurately detect and diagnose BLV at an early stage to control its spread and minimize economic losses. This review provides a comprehensive examination of BLV, encompassing its genomic structure, epidemiology, modes of transmission, clinical symptoms, detection methods, hazards, and control strategies. The aim is to provide strategic information for future BLV research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guanxin Lv
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; (G.L.); (J.W.); (S.L.)
- Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Bovine Diseases, Daqing 163319, China
- China Key Laboratory of Bovine Disease Control in Northeast China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Jianfa Wang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; (G.L.); (J.W.); (S.L.)
- Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Bovine Diseases, Daqing 163319, China
- China Key Laboratory of Bovine Disease Control in Northeast China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Shuai Lian
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; (G.L.); (J.W.); (S.L.)
- Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Bovine Diseases, Daqing 163319, China
- China Key Laboratory of Bovine Disease Control in Northeast China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Hai Wang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; (G.L.); (J.W.); (S.L.)
- Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Bovine Diseases, Daqing 163319, China
- China Key Laboratory of Bovine Disease Control in Northeast China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Rui Wu
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; (G.L.); (J.W.); (S.L.)
- Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Bovine Diseases, Daqing 163319, China
- China Key Laboratory of Bovine Disease Control in Northeast China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Daqing 163319, China
- College of Biology and Agriculture, Jiamusi University, Jiamusi 154007, China
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Jhelum H, Bender M, Reichart B, Mokelke M, Radan J, Neumann E, Krabben L, Abicht JM, Kaufer B, Längin M, Denner J. Evidence for Microchimerism in Baboon Recipients of Pig Hearts. Viruses 2023; 15:1618. [PMID: 37515304 PMCID: PMC10385208 DOI: 10.3390/v15071618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Revised: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Xenotransplantation, like allotransplantation, is usually associated with microchimerism, i.e., the presence of cells from the donor in the recipient. Microchimerism was reported in first xenotransplantation trials in humans, as well as in most preclinical trials in nonhuman primates (for review, see Denner, Viruses 2023, 15, 190). When using pigs as xenotransplantation donors, their cells contain porcine endogenous retroviruses (PERVs) in their genome. This makes it difficult to discriminate between microchimerism and PERV infection of the recipient. Here, we demonstrate the appropriate virological methods to be used for the identification of microchimerism, first by screening for porcine cellular genes, and then how to detect infection of the host. Using porcine short interspersed nuclear sequences (SINEs), which have hundreds of thousands of copies in the pig genome, significantly increased the sensitivity of the screening for pig cells. Second, absence of PERV RNA demonstrated an absence of viral genomic RNA or expression as mRNA. Lastly, absence of antibodies against PERV proteins conclusively demonstrated an absence of a PERV infection. When applying these methods for analyzing baboons after pig heart transplantation, microchimerism could be demonstrated and infection excluded in all animals. These methods can be used in future clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hina Jhelum
- Institut of Virology, Free University Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin Bender
- Department of Anaesthesiology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Bruno Reichart
- Transregional Collaborative Research Center 127, Walter Brendel Centre of Experimental Medicine, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Maren Mokelke
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, University Hospital, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Julia Radan
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, University Hospital, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Elisabeth Neumann
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, University Hospital, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Ludwig Krabben
- Institut of Virology, Free University Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jan-Michael Abicht
- Department of Anaesthesiology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Benedikt Kaufer
- Institut of Virology, Free University Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany
| | - Matthias Längin
- Department of Anaesthesiology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Joachim Denner
- Institut of Virology, Free University Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany
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3
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Evermann JF, DeAvila DM, Parish SM, Merritt CH, Noble KC, Srikanth S, Bronowski ALE. Evaluation of a serum ELISA for detection of bovine leukemia viral antibodies in milk samples. J Vet Diagn Invest 2019; 31:598-600. [PMID: 31234727 DOI: 10.1177/1040638719860487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) infection has worldwide distribution in both dairy and beef herds. Our study was initiated in order to encourage control of BLV infection by using milk samples, in lieu of serum samples, to readily test lactating animals prior to dry-off and calving. Two Holstein dairy herds (A and B), with known status of BLV infection as determined by serology, were sampled by the collection of serum and fresh milk samples. Selected samples were tested using a USDA-licensed BLV antibody ELISA kit (Bovine leukemia virus antibody test kit; VMRD, Pullman, WA) for serum. Forty-one lactating cows from each herd were sampled. Herd A was confirmed to have endemic BLV infection; herd B was confirmed to be free of BLV infection. The milk ELISA results demonstrated 100% identification of positive and negative animals compared with the serum results. The correlation of the ELISA values between serum and milk samples was 97%, which supports the use of this BLV ELISA on milk samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- James F Evermann
- Washington Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (Evermann, DeAvila, Merritt, Noble), Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences (Evermann, Parish), College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.,Veterinary Medical Research & Development (VMRD), Pullman, WA (Srikanth, Bronowski)
| | - David M DeAvila
- Washington Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (Evermann, DeAvila, Merritt, Noble), Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences (Evermann, Parish), College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.,Veterinary Medical Research & Development (VMRD), Pullman, WA (Srikanth, Bronowski)
| | - Steven M Parish
- Washington Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (Evermann, DeAvila, Merritt, Noble), Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences (Evermann, Parish), College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.,Veterinary Medical Research & Development (VMRD), Pullman, WA (Srikanth, Bronowski)
| | - Catherine H Merritt
- Washington Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (Evermann, DeAvila, Merritt, Noble), Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences (Evermann, Parish), College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.,Veterinary Medical Research & Development (VMRD), Pullman, WA (Srikanth, Bronowski)
| | - Katherine C Noble
- Washington Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (Evermann, DeAvila, Merritt, Noble), Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences (Evermann, Parish), College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.,Veterinary Medical Research & Development (VMRD), Pullman, WA (Srikanth, Bronowski)
| | - Sampath Srikanth
- Washington Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (Evermann, DeAvila, Merritt, Noble), Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences (Evermann, Parish), College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.,Veterinary Medical Research & Development (VMRD), Pullman, WA (Srikanth, Bronowski)
| | - Amanda L E Bronowski
- Washington Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (Evermann, DeAvila, Merritt, Noble), Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences (Evermann, Parish), College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.,Veterinary Medical Research & Development (VMRD), Pullman, WA (Srikanth, Bronowski)
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Khudhair YI, Hasso SA, Yaseen NY, Al-Shammari AM. Serological and molecular detection of bovine leukemia virus in cattle in Iraq. Emerg Microbes Infect 2016; 5:e56. [PMID: 27273225 PMCID: PMC4932651 DOI: 10.1038/emi.2016.60] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Revised: 02/07/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is highly endemic in many countries, including Iraq, and it impacts the beef and dairy industries. The current study sought to determine the percentage of BLV infection and persistent lymphocytosis (PL) in cattle in central Iraq. Hematological, serological, and molecular observations in cross breeds and local breeds of Iraqi cattle naturally infected with BLV were conducted in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells of 400 cattle (340 cross breed and 60 local breed) using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). On the basis of the absolute number of lymphocytes, five of the 31 positive PCR cases had PL. Among these leukemic cattle, one case exhibited overt neutrophilia. Serum samples were used to detect BLV antibodies, which were observed in 28 (7%) samples. PCR detected BLV provirus in 31 samples (7.75%). All 28 of the seropositive samples and the 3 seronegative samples were positive using PCR. Associations were observed between bovine leukosis and cattle breed, age and sex. Age-specific analysis showed that the BLV percentage increased with age in both breeds. Female cattle (29 animals; 7.34%) exhibited significantly higher infectivity than male cattle (two animals; 4.34%). In conclusion, comprehensive screening for all affected animals is needed in Iraq; programs that segregate cattle can be an effective and important method to control and/or eliminate the BLV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yahia Ismail Khudhair
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Al-University of Qadisiyah, Al Diwaniyah 58002, Iraq
| | - Saleem Amin Hasso
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Baghdad, Baghdad 10001, Iraq
| | - Nahi Y Yaseen
- Experimental Therapy Department, Iraqi Center for Cancer and Medical Genetic Research, Mustansiriyah University, Baghdad 10001, Iraq
| | - Ahmed Majeed Al-Shammari
- Experimental Therapy Department, Iraqi Center for Cancer and Medical Genetic Research, Mustansiriyah University, Baghdad 10001, Iraq
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Grünberg W, Eisenberg SWF. Atypical form of sporadic bovine leukosis (SBL) in the Netherlands. Vet Rec 2013; 173:398. [PMID: 24068696 DOI: 10.1136/vr.101885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- W Grünberg
- Department of Farm Animal Health, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 7, Utrecht 3584CL, The Netherlands
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Partridge MA, Chai Y, Zhou H, Hei TK. High-throughput antibody-based assays to identify and quantify radiation-responsive protein biomarkers. Int J Radiat Biol 2010; 86:321-8. [PMID: 20353341 DOI: 10.3109/09553000903564034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE After a radiological 'dirty bomb' incident in a major metropolitan center, substantial numbers of people may be exposed to radiation. However, only a fraction of those individuals will need urgent medical attention. Consequently, a rapid screening test is needed to identify those people who require immediate treatment. MATERIAL AND METHODS Ten normal human cell lines were screened by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the expression of a dozen secreted cytokines that have been reported to have changes in protein or mRNA levels at 1, 2, and 3 days after 0-10 Gy irradiation using (137)Cs gamma rays at 0.82 Gy min(-1). After this systematic in vitro screen, we measured changes in the level of a subset of these candidate proteins in plasma from irradiated C57BL/6 mice (n = 3 per group), comparing shams with a single radiation dose (5 Gy X-rays) at 3.7 Gy min(-1) at 6 h after irradiation. RESULTS We identified four cytokine molecules that had altered levels after radiation exposure, one of which, Interleukin (IL) 6, was consistently elevated after irradiation in vitro and in vivo. CONCLUSIONS Our findings underscore the potential for IL6 as a marker for an immunoassay-based, rapid, high-throughput biodosimeter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A Partridge
- Center for Radiological Research, College of Physicians & Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA
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González E, Licursi M, Vila Roza V, Bonzo E, Mortola E, Frossard J, Venables C. Evidence of bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV) infection: Serological survey in Argentina. Res Vet Sci 2008; 85:353-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2007.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2007] [Revised: 08/15/2007] [Accepted: 10/11/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Lew AE, Bock RE, Molloy JB, Minchin CM, Robinson SJ, Steer P. Sensitive and specific detection of proviral bovine leukemia virus by 5' Taq nuclease PCR using a 3' minor groove binder fluorogenic probe. J Virol Methods 2004; 115:167-75. [PMID: 14667532 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2003.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Sensitive assays are required to detect proviral bovine leukemia virus (BLV) in donor cattle used for the in vivo preparation of Australian tick fever vaccines. 5' Taq nuclease assays using 3' minor groove binder DNA probes (TaqManMGB) were developed and compared to conventional PCR assays for sensitive detection of Australian BLV. Seven beef and dairy herds were screened using DNA prepared by a variety of protocols to evaluate these tests. Comparative sensitivities of PCR tests were determined by testing log(10) dilutions of plasmids with inserted BLV sequences. Animals were also screened by the BLV standard agar-gel immunodiffusion test (AGID) and commercial enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) for antibodies, and an ELISA for detecting viral antigens expressed (VAE) in lymphocyte cultures. The TaqMan MGB assay based on the pol region was the most sensitive and specific for the detection of BLV. This is the first report of a sensitive BLV 5' Taq nuclease assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ala E Lew
- Agency for Food and Fibre Sciences, Queensland Department of Primary Industries, c/o Locked Mail Bag No. 4, 4105, QLD, Moorooka, Australia.
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Lew AE, Bock RE, Miles J, Cuttell LB, Steer P, Nadin-Davis SA. Sensitive and specific detection of bovine immunodeficiency virus and bovine syncytial virus by 5' Taq nuclease assays with fluorescent 3' minor groove binder-DNA probes. J Virol Methods 2004; 116:1-9. [PMID: 14715301 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2003.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Sensitive assays are required to detect bovine retroviruses in donor cattle used for the in vivo preparation of Australian tick fever vaccines. 5' Taq nuclease assays using 3' minor groove binder DNA probes (TaqMan)MGB) were developed and compared to conventional PCR assays for the sensitive detection of bovine syncytial virus (BSV) and bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV). Seven beef and dairy herds were screened to evaluate these tests. Comparative sensitivities of PCR tests were determined by testing log(10) dilutions of plasmids with inserts containing corresponding provirus sequences. Published PCR assays targeting BIV env sequences did not adequately amplify Australian BIV sequences. Pol sequences from Australian strains of BIV and BSV were used to design TaqMan MGB assays, which improved sensitivity 10-fold (BIV) and 100-fold (BSV), respectively, over conventional PCR tests. This is the first report of Australian sequences of BIV and BSV and the first 5' Taq nuclease assays described to detect these viruses. These methods could be applied to future studies requiring sensitive detection of these two bovine retroviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ala E Lew
- Agency for Food and Fibre Sciences, Queensland Department of Primary Industries, c/o Locked Mail Bag No. 4, Moorooka, 4105, Qld, Australia.
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Nagy DW, Tyler JW, Kleiboeker SB, Stoker A. Use of a polymerase chain reaction assay to detect bovine leukosis virus in dairy cattle. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2003; 222:983-5. [PMID: 12685791 DOI: 10.2460/javma.2003.222.983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the use of a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay in detecting bovine leukosis virus (BLV) in adult dairy cows. DESIGN Prospective study. ANIMALS 223 adult dairy cows. PROCEDURE Cows were tested for BLV status by use of an ELISA and a PCR assay. Sensitivity, specificity, predictive values of positive and negative tests, and the percentage of cows correctly classified by PCR assay were calculated. Ninety-five percent confidence intervals were calculated for sensitivity and specificity. RESULTS Sensitivity and specificity were 0.672 and 1.00, respectively. Prevalence of BLV in this herd was 0.807. Predictive value of a positive test was 1.00, and predictive value of a negative test was 0.421. The percentage of cows correctly classified by PCR assay was 73.5%. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE A positive PCR assay result provided definitive evidence that a cow was infected with BLV. Sensitivity and negative predictive value for PCR assay were low. Consequently, PCR assay alone is unreliable for routine detection of BLV in herds with high prevalence of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dusty W Nagy
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61802, USA
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Kuckleburg CJ, Chase CC, Nelson EA, Marras SAE, Dammen MA, Christopher-Hennings J. Detection of bovine leukemia virus in blood and milk by nested and real-time polymerase chain reactions. J Vet Diagn Invest 2003; 15:72-6. [PMID: 12580302 DOI: 10.1177/104063870301500117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Concerns about retroviruses in livestock and products derived from them have necessitated the development of tests to detect the bovine leukemia virus (BLV) in blood and milk from cattle. Dairy cattle (n = 101) from 5 different geographical areas were used for this study. A nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) identified 98% of BLV seropositive cattle (n = 80) from blood and 65% from milk, whereas real-time PCR detected 94% of BLV seropositive cattle from blood and 59% from milk. Bovine leukemia virus was also detected by PCR in approximately 10% of seronegative cattle (n = 21), most likely because of early detection before seroconversion.
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Martin D, Arjona A, Soto I, Barquero N, Viana M, Gómez-Lucía E. Comparative study of PCR as a direct assay and ELISA and AGID as indirect assays for the detection of bovine leukaemia virus. JOURNAL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. B, INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH 2001; 48:97-106. [PMID: 11315529 DOI: 10.1046/j.1439-0450.2001.00424.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The choice of a diagnostic method depends on the characteristics of the herd to be analysed. Two herds with different prevalences of enzootic bovine leukaemia were chosen to study the concordance between agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods. PCR, an increasingly used virological method, was performed with four sets of primers, amplifying different genomic regions (env, pol and tax), from DNA extracted either from peripheral blood monocytes (PBMCs) or milk leucocytes. The highest percentage of positive animals was obtained using PCR performed with DNA extracted from PBMCs using primers which amplified either env or pol, followed by PCR using PBMCs and primers which hybridized with tax, then ELISA using serum and finally AGID. The results of PCR were more consistent with PBMCs than when milk leucocytes were used.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Martin
- Departamento Patología Animal I, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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Evermann JF, Howard TH, Dubovi EJ, Knowles DP, Miller LD, Pearson JE, Snider TG, Suarez DL. Controversies and clarifications regarding bovine lentivirus infections. Subcommittee for the Bovine Retrovirus Committee, US Animal Health Association. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2000; 217:1318-24. [PMID: 11061383 DOI: 10.2460/javma.2000.217.1318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J F Evermann
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman 99164-6610, USA
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Evermann JF, Eriks IS. Diagnostic medicine: the challenge of differentiating infection from disease and making sense for the veterinary clinician. ADVANCES IN VETERINARY MEDICINE 1999; 41:25-38. [PMID: 9890007 PMCID: PMC7149316 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-3519(99)80006-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J F Evermann
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman 99164, USA
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