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Lehman PA, Franz TJ. Observations on the Tritiated Water and TEWL Skin Integrity Tests: Relevance to In Vitro Permeation Testing (IVPT). Pharm Res 2024; 41:1149-1161. [PMID: 38720033 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-024-03707-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/26/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The in vitro permeation test (IVPT) using ex vivo human skin is a sensitive and robust model system that has been vital in elucidating the fundamental parameters surrounding the absorption of both therapeutic agents and industrial chemicals through skin. FDA and OECD IVPT Guidances recommend that each skin section selected for study should be screened prior to use to ensure that the stratum corneum integrity is retained. Three methods are currently considered acceptable: 1) transepidermal water loss (TEWL), 2) electrical resistance, and 3) tritiated water (3H2O) absorption. METHODS A retrospective analysis of data from the authors' laboratory has been performed with the objective of addressing a number of questions regarding the 3H2O and TEWL integrity tests, and the population attributes of a large database consisting of 17,330 individual skin sections obtained from 459 skin donors. The applicability and usefulness of these tests, when compared to companion permeation data obtained from 25 topical drug products, has also been examined. RESULTS Both integrity tests found water permeability to be equal in White and Hispanic races but higher than in Blacks, 3H2O being more discriminating than TEWL. Male skin is more permeable than female and there is a slight decrease in permeability with advancing age in both groups. Correlation between 3H2O absorption and drug absorption revealed a minimal relationship between the two in most cases, the Pearson correlation coefficient ranging from -0.417 to 0.953. Additionally, drug outliers were not always identified with a failing integrity test. CONCLUSION The results call for a critical reexamination of the value of the 3H2O integrity test, and by extension, TEWL, for use in IVPT studies.
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In Vitro Skin Delivery of Griseofulvin by Layer-by-Layer Nanocoated Emulsions Stabilized by Whey Protein and Polysaccharides. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14030554. [PMID: 35335930 PMCID: PMC8949154 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14030554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Revised: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Griseofulvin is a poorly water-soluble drug administered orally to treat topical fungal infections of the skin and hair. However, oral administration leads to poor and unpredictable drug pharmacokinetics. Additionally, griseofulvin is unstable in the presence of light. A layer-by-layer (LbL) nanocoating approach was employed to curb these shortcomings by stabilizing emulsions, lyophilized emulsions, and reconstituted emulsions with a layer each of whey protein, and either hyaluronic acid, amylopectin, or alginic acid, which captured the drug. The coating materials are biological, environmentally benign, and plentiful. Photostability studies indicated that the LbL particles afforded 6 h of protection of the topical application. In vitro absorption studies showed that griseofulvin concentrated preferentially in the stratum corneum, with virtually no transdermal delivery. Therefore, LbL-nanocoated emulsions, lyophilized particles, and reconstituted lyophilized emulsions can produce a viable topical delivery system to treat superficial fungal infections.
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Bertero A, Augustyniak J, Buzanska L, Caloni F. Species-specific models in toxicology: in vitro epithelial barriers. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2019; 70:103203. [PMID: 31176950 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2019.103203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Species-specific in vitro epithelial barriers represent interesting predictive tools for risk assessment evaluation in toxicological studies. Moreover, these models could be applied either as stand-alone methods for the study of absorption, bioavailability, excretion, transport, effects of xenobiotics, or through an Integrated Testing Strategy. The aim of this review is to give a comprehensive overview of in vitro species-specific epithelial barrier models from bovine, dog and swine. Bovine mammary epithelial barrier as a fundamental instrument for the evaluation of the toxicant excretion, the blood brain barrier as a useful first approach in toxicological and pharmacological studies, the porcine intestinal barrier, the canine skin barrier, and finally the pulmonary barrier from bovine and swine species are described in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Bertero
- Università degli Studi di Milano, Department of Veterinary Medicine (DIMEVET) Milan, Italy
| | - J Augustyniak
- Stem Cell Bioengineering Unit, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - L Buzanska
- Stem Cell Bioengineering Unit, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - F Caloni
- Università degli Studi di Milano, Department of Veterinary Medicine (DIMEVET) Milan, Italy.
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Zuang V, Alonso MA, Botham PA, Eskes C, Fentem J, Liebsch M, van de Sandt JJM. 3.2. Skin Irritation and Corrosion. Altern Lab Anim 2019; 33 Suppl 1:35-46. [PMID: 16194140 DOI: 10.1177/026119290503301s08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Valérie Zuang
- ECVAM, Institute for Health and Consumer Protection, European Commission Joint Research Centre, Ispra (VA), Italy
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Zhang Q, Murawsky M, LaCount T, Kasting GB, Li SK. Transepidermal water loss and skin conductance as barrier integrity tests. Toxicol In Vitro 2018; 51:129-135. [PMID: 29698667 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2018.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
In vitro skin permeation studies are commonly used in the risk assessment of toxic compound skin exposure. The present study examined the utility of transepidermal water loss (TEWL) and electrical conductance as barrier integrity tests before skin permeation studies in vitro using a large number of skin samples and fentanyl. TEWL and conductance of the skin samples were measured before the permeation experiments in Franz diffusion cells in vitro with a vapometer and low voltage application, respectively. The data were analyzed based on the in vitro permeation results and in vivo skin absorption information from the transdermal fentanyl product labels. The results showed poor correlations between TEWL and electrical conductance for the skin samples. Weak correlations between fentanyl delivery rate (flux x area) and TEWL and skin conductance were observed. For comparison, TEWL and conductance were also examined after skin perturbation with a syringe needle, and both TEWL and conductance values of the skin samples increased after the perturbation. The data suggest that either TEWL of 10 g/m2/h or skin conductance of 0.07 mS/cm2 can be used as exclusion criteria in skin integrity testing to remove skin samples with high permeabilities under the in vitro conditions studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Zhang
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - Michael Murawsky
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - Terri LaCount
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - Gerald B Kasting
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - S Kevin Li
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA.
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Heylings JR, Davies DJ, Burton R. Dermal absorption of testosterone in human and pig skin in vitro. Toxicol In Vitro 2018; 48:71-77. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2017.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2017] [Revised: 12/18/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Davies DJ, Heylings JR, Gayes H, McCarthy TJ, Mack MC. Further development of an in vitro model for studying the penetration of chemicals through compromised skin. Toxicol In Vitro 2017; 38:101-107. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2016.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2016] [Revised: 08/22/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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In Vivo Assessment of Clobetasol Propionate-Loaded Lecithin-Chitosan Nanoparticles for Skin Delivery. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 18:ijms18010032. [PMID: 28035957 PMCID: PMC5297667 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18010032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2016] [Revised: 12/11/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this work was to assess in vivo the anti-inflammatory efficacy and tolerability of clobetasol propionate (CP) loaded lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles incorporated into chitosan gel for topical application (CP 0.005%). As a comparison, a commercial cream (CP 0.05% w/w), and a sodium deoxycholate gel (CP 0.05% w/w) were also evaluated. Lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles were prepared by self-assembling of the components obtained by direct injection of soybean lecithin alcoholic solution containing CP into chitosan aqueous solution. Nanoparticles obtained had a particle size around 250 nm, narrow distribution (polydispersity index below 0.2) and positive surface charge, provided by a superficial layer of the cationic polymer. The nanoparticle suspension was then loaded into a chitosan gel, to obtain a final CP concentration of 0.005%. The anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated using carrageenan-induced hind paw edema test on Wistar rats, the effect of formulations on the barrier property of the stratum corneum were determined using transepidermal water loss measurements (TEWL) and histological analysis was performed to evaluate the possible presence of morphological changes. The results obtained indicate that nanoparticle-in-gel formulation produced significantly higher edema inhibition compared to other formulations tested, although it contained ten times less CP. TEWL measurements also revealed that all formulations have no significant disturbance on the barrier function of skin. Furthermore, histological analysis of rat abdominal skin did not show morphological tissue changes nor cell infiltration signs after application of the formulations. Taken together, the present data show that the use of lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles in chitosan gel as a drug carrier significantly improves the risk-benefit ratio as compared with sodium-deoxycholate gel and commercial cream formulations of CP.
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Indermun S, Choonara YE, Kumar P, du Toit LC, Modi G, van Vuuren S, Luttge R, Pillay V. Ex vivo evaluation of a microneedle array device for transdermal application. Int J Pharm 2015; 496:351-9. [PMID: 26453791 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2015.09.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Revised: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 09/30/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
A new approach of transdermal drug delivery is the use of microneedles. This promising technique offers the potential to be broadly used for drug administration as it enables the dramatic increase in permeation of medicaments across the stratum corneum. The potential of microneedles has evolved to spawn a plethora of potential transdermal applications. In order to advance the microneedle capabilities and possibly revolutionize advanced drug delivery, this study introduces a novel transdermal electro-modulated hydrogel-microneedle array (EMH-MNA) device composed of a nano-porous, embeddable ceramic microneedle array as well as an optimized EMH for the electro-responsive delivery of indomethacin through the skin. The ex vivo permeation as well as drug release experiments were performed on porcine skin tissue to ascertain the electro-responsive capabilities of the device. In addition, the microbial permeation ability of the microneedles across the viable epidermis in both microneedle-punctured skin as well as hypodermic needle-punctured skin was determined. Ex vivo evaluation of the EMH-MNA device across porcine skin demonstrated that without electro-stimulation, significantly less drug release was obtained (±0.4540mg) as compared to electro-stimulation (±2.93mg).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunaina Indermun
- Wits Advanced Drug Delivery Platform Research Unit, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, School of Therapeutic Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 7 York Road, Parktown, 2193, South Africa
| | - Yahya E Choonara
- Wits Advanced Drug Delivery Platform Research Unit, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, School of Therapeutic Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 7 York Road, Parktown, 2193, South Africa
| | - Pradeep Kumar
- Wits Advanced Drug Delivery Platform Research Unit, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, School of Therapeutic Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 7 York Road, Parktown, 2193, South Africa
| | - Lisa C du Toit
- Wits Advanced Drug Delivery Platform Research Unit, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, School of Therapeutic Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 7 York Road, Parktown, 2193, South Africa
| | - Girish Modi
- Department of Neurology, Division of Neurosciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 7 York Road, Parktown, 2193, South Africa
| | - Sandy van Vuuren
- Wits Advanced Drug Delivery Platform Research Unit, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, School of Therapeutic Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 7 York Road, Parktown, 2193, South Africa
| | - Regina Luttge
- MESA+Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, 7500AE Enschede, The Netherlands; MyLife Technologies BV, Enschede 7500AE, The Netherlands; Department of Mechanical Engineering, Microsystems Group and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven Q2 5600MB, The Netherlands
| | - Viness Pillay
- Wits Advanced Drug Delivery Platform Research Unit, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, School of Therapeutic Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 7 York Road, Parktown, 2193, South Africa.
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Development of an in vitro model for studying the penetration of chemicals through compromised skin. Toxicol In Vitro 2015; 29:176-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2014.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2014] [Revised: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Badihi A, Debotton N, Frušić-Zlotkin M, Soroka Y, Neuman R, Benita S. Enhanced cutaneous bioavailability of dehydroepiandrosterone mediated by nano-encapsulation. J Control Release 2014; 189:65-71. [PMID: 24956487 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2014] [Revised: 06/11/2014] [Accepted: 06/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Polymeric nanocarriers, especially nanospheres (NSs) and nanocapsules (NCs), can promote the penetration of their cargo through the skin barrier, towards improved cutaneous bioavailability. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), an endogenous hormone exhibiting poor aqueous solubility, was shown to be effective in modulating skin-aging processes following topical application. In this study, we designed adequate DHEA preparations, in an attempt to enable local delivery of the active ingredient to the viable skin layers. In addition, the potential efficiency of DHEA NCs on dermal collagen synthesis was evaluated. Cryo-TEM observations and thermal analysis indicated that DHEA was successfully incorporated within a stable NC-based delivery system. Moreover, higher [(3)H]-DHEA levels were recorded in the viable skin layers following different incubation periods of NCs on excised pig skin specimens as compared to DHEA oil solution (free molecule). Furthermore, significantly higher (4-fold) skin flux values were observed for the DHEA NCs as compared to the values elicited by the oil control solution. Finally, collagen synthesis in human skin organ culture, assessed by the incorporation of [(3)H]-proline, was up to 42% higher for DHEA NCs 48h post-topical application than for the untreated specimens. Overall, these results suggest that poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA)-based NCs have promising potential to be used topically for various skin disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Badihi
- Institute for Drug Research, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9112102, Israel
| | - Nir Debotton
- Institute for Drug Research, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9112102, Israel
| | - Marina Frušić-Zlotkin
- Institute for Drug Research, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9112102, Israel
| | - Yoram Soroka
- Institute for Drug Research, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9112102, Israel
| | - Rami Neuman
- Department of Cosmetic Surgery, Hadassah Hospital Ein Kerem, Jerusalem 9112102, Israel
| | - Simon Benita
- Institute for Drug Research, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9112102, Israel.
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Falconer JR, Wen J, Zargar-Shoshtari S, Chen JJ, Farid M, El Maghraby GM, Alany RG. Evaluation of progesterone permeability from supercritical fluid processed dispersion systems. Pharm Dev Technol 2013; 19:238-46. [PMID: 23432633 DOI: 10.3109/10837450.2013.769570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the permeability of unique dispersion systems prepared by supercritical fluid (SCF) processing, to deliver bioidentical progesterone (PGN) across mouse skin. Semisolid dispersions of PGN were made up of either polyethylene glycol (PEG) 400/4000, Gelucire 44/14, d-α-tocopheryl PEG 1000 succinate (TPGS), tanscutol P or myritol 318. SCF dispersion systems were compared with various control formulations; a market cream, aqueous suspension, and three conventionally prepared dispersions comelted, cosolvent and physically mixed systems. The permeability coefficient in the absence or presence of a permeation enhancer was evaluated using ex vivo mouse skin. The permeation study results for the TPGS/myritol/transcutol P dispersion system prepared using supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) had a two-fold improvement in transdermal permeation over 24 h compared to the control formulation, 245.7 and 126 µg cm(-2), respectively (p value < 0.05). In this study, the skin integrity and morphology was also investigated for changes due to the formulation constituents using histological examination and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The particles from the gas-saturated suspension method and SC-CO2 together with TPGS/myritol/transcutol P may offer potential advantages over the available cream on the market based on the vastly improved lag time and flux of PGN across the skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Falconer
- Drug Delivery Research Unit (2DRU), School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences and
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14
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Fokuhl J, Müller-Goymann CC. Modified TEWL in vitro measurements on transdermal patches with different additives with regard to water vapour permeability kinetics. Int J Pharm 2013; 444:89-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2013.01.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2012] [Accepted: 01/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Lamellar liquid crystalline phases for cutaneous delivery of Paclitaxel: impact of the monoglyceride. Pharm Res 2012; 30:694-706. [PMID: 23135821 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-012-0908-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2012] [Accepted: 10/11/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To develop liquid crystalline phases with monoglycerides, and assess whether the monoglyceride type favors cutaneous over transdermal paclitaxel delivery. METHODS BRIJ-based lamellar phases were prepared with 0.5% paclitaxel and 20% of either monocaprylin (LP-MC), monomyristolein (LP-MM) or monoolein (LP-MO). Skin electrical resistance, drug release and cutaneous delivery in vitro and in vivo were assessed. Viability of skin equivalents and release of IL-1α were assessed as indexes of irritation potential. RESULTS An inverse relationship between monoglyceride acyl chain length and amount of paclitaxel delivered was observed. Although the largest paclitaxel amounts were delivered by LP-MC, all formulations delivered higher levels of drug in the skin (56-64-fold) than across the tissue. The superiority of LP-MC seems related to a stronger decrease in skin resistance (as an index of permeability), and not to increased drug release. LP-MC displayed similar penetration-enhancing ability in vivo, and a much lower irritation potential than Triton-X100 (a moderate irritant), leading to 3-fold higher skin equivalent viability and release of 60-fold less IL-1α. CONCLUSIONS Even though LP-MC delivered the largest amounts of paclitaxel, all formulations provided similar cutaneous/transdermal delivery ratios, suggesting that changing the monoglyceride acyl chain length did not affect the balance between cutaneous and transdermal delivery.
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Stamatas GN, Nikolovski J, Mack MC, Kollias N. Infant skin physiology and development during the first years of life: a review of recent findings based on in vivo studies. Int J Cosmet Sci 2010; 33:17-24. [PMID: 20807257 DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2494.2010.00611.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Infant skin is often presented as the cosmetic ideal for adults. However, compared to adult skin it seems to be more prone to develop certain pathological conditions, such as atopic dermatitis and irritant contact dermatitis. Therefore, understanding the physiology of healthy infant skin as a point of reference is of interest both from the cosmetic as well as from the clinical point of view. Clinical research on healthy infants is, however, limited because of ethical considerations of using invasive methods and therefore until recently data has been scarce. Technical innovations and the availability of non-invasive in vivo techniques, such as evaporimetry, electrical impedance measurement, in vivo video and confocal microscopy, and in vivo fibre-optic based spectroscopy, opened up the field of in vivo infant skin physiology research. Studies incorporating such methods have demonstrated that compared to adult, infant skin continues to develop during the first years of life. Specifically, infant skin appears to have thinner epidermis and stratum corneum (SC) as well as smaller corneocytes at least until the second year of life. The water-handling properties are not fully developed before the end of the first year and infant SC contains more water and less amounts of natural moisturizing factors. Such findings re-evaluate the old notions that skin is fully matured at birth. Armed with this knowledge, we are in a position not only to better understand infant dermatological conditions but also to design better skin care products respecting the distinct qualities of infant skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- G N Stamatas
- Johnson & Johnson Consumer France, 1 rue Camille Desmoulins, Issy-les-Moulineaux, France.
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Murthy SN, Sammeta SM, Bowers C. Magnetophoresis for enhancing transdermal drug delivery: Mechanistic studies and patch design. J Control Release 2010; 148:197-203. [PMID: 20728484 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2010.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2010] [Accepted: 08/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Magnetophoresis is a method of enhancement of drug permeation across the biological barriers by application of magnetic field. The present study investigated the mechanistic aspects of magnetophoretic transdermal drug delivery and also assessed the feasibility of designing a magnetophoretic transdermal patch system for the delivery of lidocaine. In vitro drug permeation studies were carried out across the porcine epidermis at different magnetic field strengths. The magnetophoretic drug permeation "flux enhancement factor" was found to increase with the applied magnetic field strength. The mechanistic studies revealed that the magnetic field applied in this study did not modulate permeability of the stratum corneum barrier. The predominant mechanism responsible for magnetically mediated drug permeation enhancement was found to be "magnetokinesis". The octanol/water partition coefficient of drugs was also found to increase when exposed to the magnetic field. A reservoir type transdermal patch system with a magnetic backing was designed for in vivo studies. The dermal bioavailability (AUC(0-6h)) from the magnetophoretic patch system in vivo, in rats was significantly higher than the similarly designed non-magnetic control patch.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Narasimha Murthy
- Department of Pharmaceutics, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA.
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Elmahjoubi E, Frum Y, Eccleston GM, Wilkinson SC, Meidan VM. Transepidermal water loss for probing full-thickness skin barrier function: Correlation with tritiated water flux, sensitivity to punctures and diverse surfactant exposures. Toxicol In Vitro 2009; 23:1429-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2009.06.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2009] [Revised: 05/15/2009] [Accepted: 06/30/2009] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Macfarlane M, Jones P, Goebel C, Dufour E, Rowland J, Araki D, Costabel-Farkas M, Hewitt NJ, Hibatallah J, Kirst A, McNamee P, Schellauf F, Scheel J. A tiered approach to the use of alternatives to animal testing for the safety assessment of cosmetics: Skin irritation. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2009; 54:188-96. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2009.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2009] [Revised: 04/08/2009] [Accepted: 04/15/2009] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Grindon C, Combes R, Cronin MT, Roberts DW, Garrod JF. Integrated Decision-tree Testing Strategies for Skin Corrosion and Irritation with Respect to the Requirements of the EU REACH Legislation. Altern Lab Anim 2008. [DOI: 10.1177/026119290803601s06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Liverpool John Moores University and FRAME recently conducted a research project, sponsored by Defra, on the status of alternatives to animal testing with regard to the European Union REACH (Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals) system for the safety testing and risk assessment of chemicals. The project covered all the main toxicity endpoints associated with the REACH system. This report focuses on how to maximise the use of alternative methods (both in vitro and in silico) for skin corrosion and irritation testing within a tiered testing strategy. It considers the latest developments in in vitro testing, with particular reference to the reconstituted skin models which have now been now been successfully validated and independently endorsed as suitable for both skin corrosivity and irritancy testing within the EU.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mark T.D. Cronin
- School of Pharmacy and Chemistry, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - David W. Roberts
- School of Pharmacy and Chemistry, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - John F. Garrod
- Chemicals and Nanotechnologies Division, Defra, London, UK
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Rachakonda VK, Yerramsetty KM, Madihally SV, Robinson RL, Gasem KAM. Screening of Chemical Penetration Enhancers for Transdermal Drug Delivery Using Electrical Resistance of Skin. Pharm Res 2008; 25:2697-704. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-008-9696-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2008] [Accepted: 07/23/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Meidan VM, Roper CS. Inter- and intra-individual variability in human skin barrier function: A large scale retrospective study. Toxicol In Vitro 2008; 22:1062-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2008.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2007] [Revised: 01/10/2008] [Accepted: 01/11/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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23
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Grindon C, Combes R, Cronin MTD, Roberts DW, Garrod JF. Integrated decision-tree testing strategies for skin corrosion and irritation with respect to the requirements of the EU REACH legislation. Altern Lab Anim 2008; 35:673-82. [PMID: 18186672 DOI: 10.1177/026119290703500612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Liverpool John Moores University and FRAME recently conducted a research project, sponsored by DEFRA, on the status of alternatives to animal testing with regard to the European Union REACH (Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals) system for the safety testing and risk assessment of chemicals. The project covered all the main toxicity endpoints associated with the REACH system. This report focuses on how to maximise the use of alternative methods (both in vitro and in silico) for skin corrosion and irritation testing within a tiered testing strategy. It considers the latest developments in in vitro testing, with particular reference to the reconstituted skin models which have now been now been successfully validated and independently endorsed as suitable for both skin corrosivity and irritancy testing within the EU.
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24
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Eppler AR, Kraeling MEK, Wickett RR, Bronaugh RL. Assessment of skin absorption and irritation potential of arachidonic acid and glyceryl arachidonate using in vitro diffusion cell techniques. Food Chem Toxicol 2007; 45:2109-17. [PMID: 17602815 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2007.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2007] [Revised: 04/25/2007] [Accepted: 05/09/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Arachidonic acid (AA), a precursor of pro-inflammatory mediators, and its glycerin ester, glyceryl arachidonate (GA), are reportedly used in cosmetic products. In vitro skin penetration of AA and GA and GA's ester hydrolysis was determined in flow-through diffusion cells. AA penetration with human and rat skin was 19.5% and 52.3% of the applied dose respectively, a substantial amount of which remained in the skin at 24h. Similar penetration results were obtained with GA in human skin. However, GA penetration through cultured skin (EpiDerm) was 51% of the applied dose, almost all of which appeared in the receptor fluid. At least 27.8% of GA penetrating skin was hydrolyzed to AA. In vitro methods were used to assess skin irritation in diffusion cells. Skin irritation of AA, sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS), and Tween 80 was determined by changes in transepidermal water loss (TEWL), skin viability (3-(4,5-dimethylthiaxol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, MTT, formation), and cytokine release (IL-1alpha). SLS irritation was much less pronounced in an emulsion versus an aqueous vehicle. No significant irritation was observed in vitro from AA in an emulsion. This work predicts that AA would penetrate human skin in vivo and that it could be formed in skin from topically applied GA.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R Eppler
- Office of Cosmetics and Colors/Division of Cosmetics and Compliance, US Food & Drug Administration, Laurel MD, United States.
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25
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Pappinen S, Tikkinen S, Pasonen-Seppänen S, Murtomäki L, Suhonen M, Urtti A. Rat epidermal keratinocyte organotypic culture (ROC) compared to human cadaver skin: The effect of skin permeation enhancers. Eur J Pharm Sci 2007; 30:240-50. [PMID: 17188471 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2006.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2006] [Revised: 11/06/2006] [Accepted: 11/12/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to evaluate the response of the rat epidermal keratinocyte organotypic culture (ROC) to permeation enhancers, and to compare these responses to those in human cadaver skin. Different concentrations of two mixtures for enhancing permeation were investigated, sodium dodecyl sulfate:phenyl piperazine and methyl pyrrolidone:dodecyl pyridinium chloride, using skin impedance spectroscopy and two experimental compounds, the lipophilic corticosterone and the hydrophilic sucrose. The chemical irritation effects of the formulations were evaluated based on leakage of lactate dehydrogenase enzyme (LDH) and cellular morphological perturbation. This study provides evidence for direct correlations of permeation/permeation, impedance/impedance and permation/impedance between the culture model and human skin. The only exception was the enhancer induced permeation of sucrose which was 1-40-fold higher in ROC compared to human skin, reflecting the more disordered lipid organization in stratum corneum and consequently the greater number of polar pathways. LDH leakage and cellular morphology indicated that it was possible to differentiate between safe permeation enhancers from irritating agents. This is not only the first study to have compared the enhancer effects on a cultured skin model with human skin, but also it has demonstrated enhancer induced irritation using an artificial skin model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sari Pappinen
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Kuopio, P.O. Box 1627, 70211 Kuopio, Finland.
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26
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Karande P, Jain A, Mitragotri S. Relationships between skin's electrical impedance and permeability in the presence of chemical enhancers. J Control Release 2006; 110:307-313. [PMID: 16313994 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2005.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2005] [Revised: 10/12/2005] [Accepted: 10/19/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Stratum corneum, the outermost layer of the skin, offers a strong barrier to the movement of solutes as well as ions. We report on the existence of a relationship between skin's electrical impedance and its permeability to hydrophilic (mannitol and inulin) as well as hydrophobic (corticosterone and estradiol) solutes in the presence of 33 distinct chemical penetration enhancer formulations. The correlation between impedance and permeability was excellent (r2=0.8) for hydrophilic solutes and moderate, yet significant (r2 approximately 0.5), for hydrophobic solutes. The possibility of using skin's electrical impedance to choose potent formulations was quantitatively assessed. Percentile ranking of penetration enhancers based on their effect on skin's electrical impedance matched well with the ranking based on their effect on solute permeability (r2>0.9 for both mannitol and estradiol). These studies demonstrate the feasibility of using skin's electrical impedance to screen potent chemical enhancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pankaj Karande
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, United States
| | - Amit Jain
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, United States
| | - Samir Mitragotri
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, United States.
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27
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Garle MJ, Fry JR. Sensory nerves, neurogenic inflammation and pain: missing components of alternative irritation strategies? A review and a potential strategy. Altern Lab Anim 2005; 31:295-316. [PMID: 15612874 DOI: 10.1177/026119290303100313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The eyes and skin are highly innervated by sensory nerves; stimulation of these nerves by irritants may give rise to neurogenic inflammation, leading to sensory irritation and pain. Few in vitro models of neurogenic inflammation have been described in conjunction with alternative skin and eye irritation methods, despite the fact that the sensory innervation of these organs is well-documented. To date, alternative approaches to the Draize skin and eye irritation tests have proved largely successful at classifying severe irritants, but are generally poor at discriminating between agents with mild to moderate irritant potential. We propose that the development of in vitro models for the prediction of sensory stimulation will assist in the re-classification of the irritant potential of agents that are under-predicted by current in vitro strategies. This review describes the range of xenobiotics known to cause inflammation and pain through the stimulation of sensory nerves, as well as the endogenous mediators and receptor types that are involved. In particular, it focuses on the vanilloid receptor, its activators and its regulation, as these receptors function as integrators of responses to numerous noxious stimuli. Cell culture models and ex vivo preparations that have the potential to serve as predictors of sensory irritation are also described. In addition, as readily available sensory neuron cell line models are few in number, stem cell lines (with the capacity to differentiate into sensory neurons) are explored. Finally, a preliminary strategy to enable assessment of whether incorporation of a sensory component will enhance the predictive power of current in vitro eye and skin testing strategies is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Garle
- Division of Gastroenterology, School of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Nottingham Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
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28
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Davies DJ, Ward RJ, Heylings JR. Multi-species assessment of electrical resistance as a skin integrity marker for in vitro percutaneous absorption studies. Toxicol In Vitro 2004; 18:351-8. [PMID: 15046783 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2003.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2003] [Accepted: 10/17/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Assessment of percutaneous absorption in vitro provides key information when predicting dermal absorption in vivo. Confirmation of skin membrane integrity is an essential component of the in vitro method, as described in test guideline OECD 428. Historically, assessment of the membrane's permeability to tritiated water (T2O) and the generation of a permeability coefficient (Kp) were used to confirm that the skin membrane was intact prior to application of the test penetrant. Measuring electrical resistance (ER) across the membrane is a simpler, quicker, safer and more cost effective method. To investigate the robustness of the ER integrity measure, the Kp values for T2O for a range of human and animal skin membranes were compared with corresponding ER data. Overall, for human, rat, pig, mouse, rabbit and guinea pig skin, the ER data gave a good inverse association with the corresponding Kp values; the higher the Kp the lower the ER values. In addition, the distribution across a large dataset for individual skin samples was similar for Kp and ER, allowing a cut-off value for ER to be established for each skin type. Based on CTL's (Syngenta Central Toxicology Laboratory) standard static diffusion cells and databridge, we propose that intact skin should have an ER equal to or above (in kOmega): human (10), mouse (5) guinea pig (5), pig (4) rat (3), and rabbit (0.8). We conclude that measurement of ER across in vitro skin membranes provides a robust measurement of skin barrier integrity and is an appropriate alternative to Kp for T2O in order to identify intact membranes that have acceptable permeability characteristics for in vitro percutaneous absorption studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Davies
- Syngenta Central Toxicology Laboratory, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, Cheshire SK10 4TJ, UK.
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29
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Heylings JR, Diot S, Esdaile DJ, Fasano WJ, Manning LA, Owen HM. A prevalidation study on the in vitro skin irritation function test (SIFT) for prediction of acute skin irritation in vivo: results and evaluation of ECVAM Phase III. Toxicol In Vitro 2003; 17:123-38. [PMID: 12650665 DOI: 10.1016/s0887-2333(02)00130-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A prevalidation study sponsored by the European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) on in vitro tests for acute skin irritation is aimed at identifying non-animal tests capable of discriminating irritants (I) from non-irritants (NI), as defined according to European Union and OECD. This paper reports on Phase III for one of the methods, the skin integrity function test (SIFT), assessing the protocol performance of the SIFT, in terms of reproducibility and predictive ability, in three laboratories. The barrier function properties of excised mouse skin were determined using a set of 20 coded chemicals (10 I, 10 NI), using the endpoints of trans-epidermal water loss (TEWL) and electrical resistance (ER). The basis of the SIFT prediction model is if the ratios of the pre- and post-application values for either TEWL or ER are greater than five-fold, then the test chemical is deemed irritant (I). If the ratio of both parameters is less than five-fold then the chemical is deemed non-irritant (NI). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that the intra-lab reproducibility was acceptable but that the inter-lab reproducibility was not. Overall, the SIFT test under-predicted the irritancy of the test chemicals chosen for Phase III with an overall accuracy of only 55%. The sensitivity value (ability to correctly predict I) was only 30%. The specificity (ability to predict NI) of the test was better at 80%. A retrospective examination of the SIFT results was undertaken using Student's t-test and a significance level of P<0.05 to predict an irritant based on changes in the TEWL ratio values. This improved the predictivity of the SIFT test, giving a specificity of 60%, a sensitivity of 80% and an overall accuracy of 70%. Appropriate modifications to the prediction model have now been made and the SIFT will be re-examined in a new validation exercise to investigate the potential of this non-animal method to predict acute skin irritation potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R Heylings
- Syngenta Central Toxicology Laboratory, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, Cheshire SK10 4TJ, UK.
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30
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Fasano WJ, Manning LA, Green JW. Rapid integrity assessment of rat and human epidermal membranes for in vitro dermal regulatory testing: correlation of electrical resistance with tritiated water permeability. Toxicol In Vitro 2002; 16:731-40. [PMID: 12423657 DOI: 10.1016/s0887-2333(02)00084-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
An approach is presented that allows for rapid selection of robust rat and human epidermal membranes for use on in vitro dermal regulatory studies. Tritiated water (THO) permeability was correlated with electrical resistance (ER) and the results used to propose ER values to judge membrane integrity. Rat and human epidermal membranes were prepared and mounted onto in vitro glass static diffusion cells (0.64 cm(2)) maintained at 32 degrees C. THO permeability coefficients (Kp) were determined and compared with ER measurements. Electrical resistance was also determined for various in vitro cell exposure areas from 0.64 cm(2) to 2.54 cm(2). Our results show that rat epidermal membrane THO Kp values exhibited a lognormal distribution with a median value of 2.76 x 10(-3) cm/h. Human epidermal membrane THO Kp values were best described by a Weibull distribution with a median value of 1.13 x 10(-3) cm/h. The corresponding median electrical resistance measurements were 5.59 kOmega for rat and 23 kOmega for human epidermal membranes. Based on the widely used and accepted single point THO Kp thresholds of </=2.5 x 10(-3) cm/h (rat) and </=1.5 x 10(-3) cm/h (human), the corresponding ER values of >/=5.87 kOmega and >/=17.1 kOmega were calculated and proposed as acceptable benchmarks for pre-qualifying membranes. In our research exploring the relationship between ER and exposure area we report that an inverse relationship exists between ER and in vitro cell exposure area; as cell area increased, ER decreased. The use of electrical resistance provides a rapid and reliable method for evaluating the integrity of rat and human epidermal membranes for in vitro dermal kinetic testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- W J Fasano
- The DuPont Company, Haskell Laboratory for Health and Environmental Sciences, PO Box 50 Elkton Road, Newark, DE 19714, USA.
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