Involvement of Ca2+ signalling in the vasoactive intestinal peptide and 8-Br-cAMP induction of c-fos mRNA expression

Inhibition of lipolysis: A novel explanation for the hypothermic actions of acetaminophen in non-febrile rodents

Acetaminophen is both widely used to treat children with fever and is also responsible for thousands being hospitalised annually. Historically the antipyretic actions of acetaminophen were attributed to the inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX-1/2) enzymes and more recently a novel COX-1 variant (COX-3) located in the brain. However, the evidence for acetaminophen-mediated COX inhibition remains contentious. This study assesses the impact of acetaminophen and other putative COX-3 inhibitors on the release of fatty acids during lipolysis as an alternative mechanism by which antipyretics can reduce body temperature during fever. 3T3-L1 adipocytes, primary brown adipocytes and isolated mitochondria were exposed to COX-3 inhibitors and lipolysis and mitochondrial electron transport chain function assessed. Acetaminophen, aminopyrine and antipyrine at 1-10 mM caused a significant decrease (up to 70%; P < 0.01, from control) in lipolysis within 1, 3 and 24 h without affecting cell viability. The inhibition was observed regardless of where along its signalling pathway lipolysis was stimulated. All three compounds were found to significantly attenuate mitochondrial function by up to 30% for complex I and 40% for complex II (P < 0.01, from control). These novel observations combined with the known limited inhibition of the COX enzymes by acetaminophen suggest both the antipyretic and hypothermia induced by acetaminophen and related compounds could be attributed to the direct inhibition of lipolysis and mitochondrial function, rather than cyclooxygenase inhibition centrally. Further these observations could provide new drug targets for reducing fever with the added bonus of fewer individuals being hospitalized by accidental acetaminophen overdose.

Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) induces c-fos expression in LNCaP prostate cancer cells through a mechanism that involves Ca2+ signalling. Implications in angiogenesis and neuroendocrine differentiation

The effect of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) on intracellular Ca(2+) levels and its relationship with the expression of c-fos and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) as well as with neuroendocrine (NE) differentiation were investigated in human prostate LNCaP cells. VIP induced the expression of c-fos mRNA as studied by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). It was accompanied by VIP stimulation of c-fos protein synthesis, as measured by Western blot analysis. VIP enhanced intracellular Ca(2+) levels as evaluated using the calcium probe fura-2. VIP regulation of c-fos expression depended on [Ca(2+)](i) concentration since the intracellular calcium chelator BAPTA/AM decreased c-fos expression (both mRNA and protein) to basal levels. As shown by means of real-time RT-PCR, VIP stimulated VEGF mRNA expression: the effect was inhibited by 40% in the presence of curcumin (an inhibitor of AP-1 binding), and it was dependent on Ca(2+) since BAPTA/AM inhibited this VIP action by 43%. Similar observations were made on the effects of BAPTA/AM and curcumin on VIP stimulation of VEGF protein expression. Simultaneous treatment of cells with the protein kinase A inhibitor H89 and BAPTA/AM completely blocked this VIP effect, whereas each agent alone led only to a partial inhibition. In addition, the calcium chelator blocked by 37% the ability of VIP to induce NE cell differentiation as estimated by the observation of neurite development. These features support a VIP signalling pathway that could be mediated through both cAMP and [Ca(2+)](i) increase in prostate LNCaP cancer cells. Moreover, our data suggest the implication of c-Fos on the induction of the main angiogenic factor VEGF since the promoter region of the VEGF gene possesses AP-1 (i.e., c-Fos/c-Jun heterodimer) response elements. This feature represents a link between the nuclear oncogene c-fos, angiogenesis and NE differentiation by means of an initiating signal upon VIP receptors.

Prolactin: structure, function, and regulation of secretion

Prolactin is a protein hormone of the anterior pituitary gland that was originally named for its ability to promote lactation in response to the suckling stimulus of hungry young mammals. We now know that prolactin is not as simple as originally described. Indeed, chemically, prolactin appears in a multiplicity of posttranslational forms ranging from size variants to chemical modifications such as phosphorylation or glycosylation. It is not only synthesized in the pituitary gland, as originally described, but also within the central nervous system, the immune system, the uterus and its associated tissues of conception, and even the mammary gland itself. Moreover, its biological actions are not limited solely to reproduction because it has been shown to control a variety of behaviors and even play a role in homeostasis. Prolactin-releasing stimuli not only include the nursing stimulus, but light, audition, olfaction, and stress can serve a stimulatory role. Finally, although it is well known that dopamine of hypothalamic origin provides inhibitory control over the secretion of prolactin, other factors within the brain, pituitary gland, and peripheral organs have been shown to inhibit or stimulate prolactin secretion as well. It is the purpose of this review to provide a comprehensive survey of our current understanding of prolactin's function and its regulation and to expose some of the controversies still existing.

The mechanism of action of prostaglandins on uveoscleral outflow

It is generally accepted that prostaglandins (PGs) lower intraocular pressure by increasing uveoscleral outflow. The growing use of PGs to lower intraocular pressure has led to increased interest in the uveoscleral outflow. Uveoscleral outflow passes through extracellular spaces within the ciliary muscle and then through the suprachoroidal space to the posterior pole of the eye. Recent studies indicate that this reflects a direct effect of PGs on specific ciliary muscle prostanoid receptors. Activation of these receptors stimulates several linked responses, including cAMP formation and induction of c-Fos and c-Jun expression. These signals lead to increased biosynthesis of matrix metalloproteinases, a family of neutral proteinases that can cleave extracellular matrix molecules. These matrix metalloproteinases may initiate the alteration of collagens in the ciliary muscle to increase spaces among ciliary muscle fibers, thereby reducing hydraulic resistance in the uveoscleral outflow pathway.

Cyclosporin A induces a biphasic increase in KCl-induced calcium influx in GH3 pituitary cells

The role of calcineurin in modulation of calcium channel activity was examined in GH3 pituitary cells by using its selective inhibitor cyclosporin A. While cyclosporin A had little effect on basal activity, it induced a biphasic increase in K+-induced 45Ca2+ influx. Cyclosporin A rapidly increased K+-induced 45Ca2+ influx to approximately 140% of control in 1 h and the increment maintained at this magnitude for 1-8 h. Thereafter, K+-induced 45Ca2+ influx gradually increased further to approximately 220% after 24 h exposure to this compound. In the presence of anisomycin, however, the increase occurred at the latter phase was abolished. In addition, the increased calcium influx in cyclosporin A-pretreated cells had a similar sensitivity to KCl and verapamil as in untreated cells. Measurement of intracellular Ca2+ level by Fura-2 analysis indicated that [Ca2+]i increase induced by high K+ or vasoactive intestinal peptide was similarly augmented in cyclosporin A-pretreated cells. Thus the results of this study suggest that calcineurin may play a tonic control on L-type Ca2+ channel, and inhibition of this enzyme may induce a subsequently protein synthesis-dependent higher channel activity.