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Yang C, Gao Z, Wang Y, Zhang Q, Bai M, Yang H, Guo J, Zhang Y. Genome-wide DNA methylation analysis reveals layer-specific methylation patterns in deer antler tissue. Gene 2023; 884:147744. [PMID: 37640118 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2023.147744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
This paper explored using of deer antlers as a model for studying rapid growth and cartilage formation in mammals. The genes and regulatory mechanisms involved in antler chondrogenesis are poorly understood, however, previous research has suggested that DNA methylation played a key role in antler regeneration. By using fluorescence-labeled methylation-sensitive amplified polymorphism (F-MSAP), this study measured DNA methylation levels in cartilage (CA) and reserve mesenchyme (RM) cells and tissues. Results showed that RM cells (RMCs) DNA methylation levels were significantly lower than those of CA, suggesting that DNA demethylation may be involved in antler fast cartilage differentiation. The study also identified 20 methylated fragments specific to RMCs or CA using the methylation-sensitive amplified polymorphism (MSAP) technique and confirmed these findings using southern blot analysis. The data provide the first experimental evidence of a link between epigenetic regulation and rapid cartilage differentiation in antlers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Yang
- College of Basic Medicine, Beihua University, Jilin, PR China.
| | - Zizheng Gao
- College of Basic Medicine, Beihua University, Jilin, PR China
| | - Yukun Wang
- School of Stomatology, Beihua University, Jilin, PR China
| | - Qi Zhang
- School of Public Health, Beihua University, Jilin, PR China
| | - Muran Bai
- School of Stomatology, Beihua University, Jilin, PR China
| | - Huiran Yang
- School of Public Health, Beihua University, Jilin, PR China
| | - Junqi Guo
- The Third Clinical Medicine Affiliated to Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, PR China.
| | - Yan Zhang
- School of Public Health, Beihua University, Jilin, PR China.
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2
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Kierdorf U, Stock SR, Gomez S, Antipova O, Kierdorf H. Distribution, structure, and mineralization of calcified cartilage remnants in hard antlers. Bone Rep 2022; 16:101571. [PMID: 35519288 PMCID: PMC9065892 DOI: 10.1016/j.bonr.2022.101571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2022] [Revised: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Antlers are paired deciduous bony cranial appendages of deer that undergo a regular cycle of growth, death and casting, and constitute the most rapidly growing bones in mammals. Antler growth occurs in an appositional mode and involves a modified form of endochondral ossification. In endochondral bones, calcified cartilage is typically a transient tissue that is eventually completely replaced by bone tissue. We studied the distribution and characteristics of calcified cartilage in hard antlers from three deer species (Capreolus capreolus, Cervus elaphus, Dama dama), i.e., in antlers from which the skin (velvet) had been shed. Remnants of calcified cartilage were regularly present as part of the trabecular framework in the late formed, distal antler portions in all three species, whereas this tissue was largely or completely missing in the more proximal antler portions. The presence of calcified cartilage remnants in the distal antler portions is attributed to the limited antler lifespan of only a few months, which is also the reason for the virtual lack of bone remodeling in antlers. The calcified cartilage matrix was more highly mineralized than the antler bone matrix. Mineralized deposits were observed in some chondrocyte lacunae and occasionally also in osteocyte lacunae, a phenomenon that has not previously been reported in antlers. Using synchrotron radiation-induced X-ray fluorescence (SR-XRF) mapping, we further demonstrated increased zinc concentrations in cement lines, along the inner borders of incompletely formed primary osteons, along the walls of partly or completely mineral-occluded chondrocyte and osteocyte lacunae, and in intralacunar mineralized deposits. The present study demonstrates that antlers are a promising model for studying the mineralization of cartilage and bone matrices and the formation of mineralized deposits in chondrocyte and osteocyte lacunae. Remnants of calcified cartilage are regularly present in hard antlers of deer. Preservation of calcified cartilage is caused by the short lifespan of antlers. Calcified cartilage of antlers is more highly mineralized than antler bone. Mineralized deposits were observed in chondrocyte and osteocyte lacunae of antlers. SR-XRF showed increased Zn-concentration in cement lines and intralacunar deposits.
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3
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Boraldi F, Lofaro FD, Quaglino D. Apoptosis in the Extraosseous Calcification Process. Cells 2021; 10:cells10010131. [PMID: 33445441 PMCID: PMC7827519 DOI: 10.3390/cells10010131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Revised: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Extraosseous calcification is a pathologic mineralization process occurring in soft connective tissues (e.g., skin, vessels, tendons, and cartilage). It can take place on a genetic basis or as a consequence of acquired chronic diseases. In this last case, the etiology is multifactorial, including both extra- and intracellular mechanisms, such as the formation of membrane vesicles (e.g., matrix vesicles and apoptotic bodies), mitochondrial alterations, and oxidative stress. This review is an overview of extraosseous calcification mechanisms focusing on the relationships between apoptosis and mineralization in cartilage and vascular tissues, as these are the two tissues mostly affected by a number of age-related diseases having a progressively increased impact in Western Countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Boraldi
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (F.D.L.); (D.Q.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Francesco Demetrio Lofaro
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (F.D.L.); (D.Q.)
| | - Daniela Quaglino
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (F.D.L.); (D.Q.)
- Interuniversity Consortium for Biotechnologies (CIB), Italy
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Rössner GE, Costeur L, Scheyer TM. Antiquity and fundamental processes of the antler cycle in Cervidae (Mammalia). THE SCIENCE OF NATURE - NATURWISSENSCHAFTEN 2020; 108:3. [PMID: 33326046 PMCID: PMC7744388 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-020-01713-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Revised: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The origins of the regenerative nature of antlers, being branched and deciduous apophyseal appendages of frontal bones of cervid artiodactyls, have long been associated with permanent evolutionary precursors. In this study, we provide novel insight into growth modes of evolutionary early antlers. We analysed a total of 34 early antlers affiliated to ten species, including the oldest known, dating from the early and middle Miocene (approx. 18 to 12 million years old) of Europe. Our findings provide empirical data from the fossil record to demonstrate that growth patterns and a regular cycle of necrosis, abscission and regeneration are consistent with data from modern antlers. The diverse histological analyses indicate that primary processes and mechanisms of the modern antler cycle were not gradually acquired during evolution, but were fundamental from the earliest record of antler evolution and, hence, explanations why deer shed antlers have to be rooted in basic histogenetic mechanisms. The previous interpretation that proximal circular protuberances, burrs, are the categorical traits for ephemerality is refuted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gertrud E. Rössner
- Staatliche Naturwissenschaftliche Sammlungen Bayerns - Bayerische Staatssammlung für Paläontologie und Geologie, Richard Wagner Str. 10, 80333 München, Germany
- Department für Geo- und Umweltwissenschaften, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Richard-Wagner-Str. 10, 80333 München, Germany
| | - Loïc Costeur
- Naturhistorisches Museum Basel, Augustinergasse 2, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Torsten M. Scheyer
- Universität Zürich, Paläontologisches Institut und Museum, Karl Schmid-Strasse 4, 8006 Zürich, Switzerland
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Landete-Castillejos T, Kierdorf H, Gomez S, Luna S, García AJ, Cappelli J, Pérez-Serrano M, Pérez-Barbería J, Gallego L, Kierdorf U. Antlers - Evolution, development, structure, composition, and biomechanics of an outstanding type of bone. Bone 2019; 128:115046. [PMID: 31446115 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2019.115046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Revised: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Antlers are bony appendages of deer that undergo periodic regeneration from the top of permanent outgrowths (the pedicles) of the frontal bones. Of the "less familiar" bone types whose study was advocated by John Currey to gain a better understanding of structure-function relationships of mineralized tissues and organs, antlers were of special interest to him. The present review summarizes our current knowledge about the evolution, development, structure, mineralization, and biomechanics of antlers and how their formation is affected by environmental factors like nutrition. Furthermore, the potential role of antlers as a model in bone biology and several fields of biomedicine as well as their use as a monitoring tool in environmental studies are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Landete-Castillejos
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02071 Albacete, Spain; Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos y Montes, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02071 Albacete, Spain; Sección de Recursos Cinegéticos y Ganaderos, Instituto de Desarrollo Regional, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02071 Albacete, Spain.
| | - H Kierdorf
- Department of Biology, University of Hildesheim, 31141 Hildesheim, Germany
| | - S Gomez
- Universidad de Cádiz, 11071 Cádiz, Spain
| | - S Luna
- Universidad de Cádiz, 11071 Cádiz, Spain
| | - A J García
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02071 Albacete, Spain; Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos y Montes, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02071 Albacete, Spain; Sección de Recursos Cinegéticos y Ganaderos, Instituto de Desarrollo Regional, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02071 Albacete, Spain
| | - J Cappelli
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02071 Albacete, Spain; Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos y Montes, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02071 Albacete, Spain; Sección de Recursos Cinegéticos y Ganaderos, Instituto de Desarrollo Regional, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02071 Albacete, Spain
| | - M Pérez-Serrano
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02071 Albacete, Spain; Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos y Montes, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02071 Albacete, Spain; Sección de Recursos Cinegéticos y Ganaderos, Instituto de Desarrollo Regional, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02071 Albacete, Spain
| | - J Pérez-Barbería
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02071 Albacete, Spain; Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos y Montes, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02071 Albacete, Spain; Sección de Recursos Cinegéticos y Ganaderos, Instituto de Desarrollo Regional, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02071 Albacete, Spain
| | - L Gallego
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02071 Albacete, Spain; Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos y Montes, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02071 Albacete, Spain; Sección de Recursos Cinegéticos y Ganaderos, Instituto de Desarrollo Regional, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02071 Albacete, Spain
| | - U Kierdorf
- Department of Biology, University of Hildesheim, 31141 Hildesheim, Germany
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Ba H, Wang D, Yau TO, Shang Y, Li C. Transcriptomic analysis of different tissue layers in antler growth Center in Sika Deer (Cervus nippon). BMC Genomics 2019; 20:173. [PMID: 30836939 PMCID: PMC6402185 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-5560-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND With the unprecedented rapid growth rate (up to 2.75 cm/day), velvet antler is an invaluable model for the identification of potent growth factors and signaling networks for extremely fast growing tissues, mainly cartilage. Antler growth center (AGC) locates in its tip and consists of five tissue layers: reserve mesenchyme (RM), precartilage (PC), transition zone (TZ), cartilage (CA) and mineralized cartilage (MC). The aim of this study was to investigate the transcription dynamics in the AGC using RNA-seq technology. RESULTS Five tissue layers in the AGC were collected from three 3-year-old male sika deer using our previously reported sampling method (morphologically distinguishable). After sequencing (15 samples; triplicates/tissue layer), we assembled a reference transcriptome de novo and used RNA-seq to measure gene expression profiles across these five layers. Nine differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were selected from our data and subsequently verified using qRT-PCR. The results showed a high consistency with the RNA-seq results (R2 = 0.80). Nine modules were constructed based on co-expression network analysis, and these modules contained 370 hub genes. These genes were found to be mainly involved in mesenchymal progenitor cell proliferation, chondrogenesis, osteogenesis and angiogenesis. Combination of our own results with the previously published reports, we found that Wnt signaling likely plays a key role not only in stimulating the antler stem cells or their immediate progeny, but also in promoting chondrogenesis and osteogenesis during antler development. CONCLUSION We have successfully assembled a reference transcriptome, generated gene expression profiling across the five tissue layers in the AGC, and identified nine co-expressed modules that contain 370 hub genes and genes predorminantly expressed in and highly relevant to each tissue layer. We believe our findings have laid the foundation for the identification of novel genes for rapid proliferation and chondrogenic differentiation of antler cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hengxing Ba
- State Key Laboratory for Molecular Biology of Special Wild Economic Animals, Institute of Special Wild Economic Animals and Plants, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, 130112, China
| | - Datao Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Molecular Biology of Special Wild Economic Animals, Institute of Special Wild Economic Animals and Plants, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, 130112, China
| | - Tung On Yau
- College of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Clifton Campus, Nottingham, NG11 8NS, UK
| | - Yudong Shang
- State Key Laboratory for Molecular Biology of Special Wild Economic Animals, Institute of Special Wild Economic Animals and Plants, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, 130112, China
| | - Chunyi Li
- State Key Laboratory for Molecular Biology of Special Wild Economic Animals, Institute of Special Wild Economic Animals and Plants, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, 130112, China. .,Changchun Sci-Tech University, Changchun, 130600, China.
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7
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The contribution of deer velvet antler research to the modern biological medicine. Chin J Integr Med 2014; 20:723-8. [DOI: 10.1007/s11655-014-1827-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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8
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Kierdorf U, Flohr S, Gomez S, Landete-Castillejos T, Kierdorf H. The structure of pedicle and hard antler bone in the European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus): a light microscope and backscattered electron imaging study. J Anat 2013; 223:364-84. [PMID: 23961846 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Deer antlers are deciduous bony structures that develop from permanent frontal outgrowths, the pedicles. While growth and bone architecture of antlers have been studied in greater detail, information on pedicle formation and structure is scarce. The present study provides information on the structure of pedicle and hard antler bone in the European roe deer. A pronounced seasonal variation in pedicle architecture was observed, with high porosity around antler casting and a very compact bone structure during the hard antler stage. These observations suggest a corresponding marked variation also in the biomechanical properties of the pedicles. The seasonally alternating extensive resorption and formation processes make the pedicles of older deer heavily remodeled structures. Pedicles increase in thickness by apposition of primary bone that subsequently becomes replaced by secondary osteons. The antler cortex of roe deer is largely composed of a tubular framework of woven bone trabeculae with some remnants of mineralized cartilage, and primary osteons that have filled in the intertrabecular spaces. Secondary osteons are scarce, denoting little remodeling in antlers, which can be related to their short lifespan. The occurrence of cement lines around primary osteons indicates resorption on the trabecular scaffold prior to infilling of the intertrabecular spaces. The outer cortex showed a higher autofluorescence and a more immature structure than the main cortex, suggesting that it was secondarily formed by periosteal activity. Pedicles and antlers constitute a functional entity, and future histological and/or biomechanical studies should therefore consider both components of the cranial appendages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uwe Kierdorf
- Department of Biology, University of Hildesheim, Hildesheim, Germany
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9
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Gomez S, Garcia AJ, Luna S, Kierdorf U, Kierdorf H, Gallego L, Landete-Castillejos T. Labeling studies on cortical bone formation in the antlers of red deer (Cervus elaphus). Bone 2013; 52:506-15. [PMID: 23000508 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2012.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2012] [Revised: 09/12/2012] [Accepted: 09/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The formation and mineralization process of antlers, which constitute the fastest growing bones in vertebrates, is still not fully understood. We used oxytetracycline injections to label different stages of bone formation in antlers of 14 red deer between days 28 and 156 of antler growth. Results show that initially a trabecular scaffold of woven bone is formed which largely replaces a pre-existing scaffold of mineralized cartilage. Lamellar bone is then deposited and from about day 70 onwards, primary osteons fill in the longitudinal tubes lined by the scaffold in a proximal to distal sequence. Mineral apposition rate (MAR) in early stages of primary osteon formation is very high (average 2.15 μm/d). Lower MARs were recorded for later stages of primary osteon formation (1.56 μm/d) and for the smaller secondary osteons (0.89 μm/d). Results suggest a peak in mineral demand around day 100 when the extent of mineralizing surfaces is maximal. A few secondary osteons were formed in a process of antler modeling rather than remodeling, as it occurred simultaneously with formation of primary osteons. The degree of cortical porosity reflects a reduction in MAR during later stages of osteonal growth, whereas cortical thickness is determined earlier. Injections given when the antlers were largely or completely clean from velvet produced no labels in antler bone, strongly suggesting that antlers are dead after velvet shedding. The rapidity of antler mineralization and the short lifespan of antlers make them an extraordinary model to assess the effects of chemicals impairing or promoting bone mineralization.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Gomez
- Departamento de Anatomía Patológica, Universidad de Cadiz, Falla 9, 11071 Cadiz, Spain
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10
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Doherty AH, Lowder EM, Jacquet RD, Landis WJ. Murine metapodophalangeal sesamoid bones: morphology and potential means of mineralization underlying function. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2010; 293:775-85. [PMID: 20225198 DOI: 10.1002/ar.21095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Normal murine metapodophalangeal sesamoid bones, closely associated with tendons, were examined in terms of their structure and mineralization with reference to their potential function following crystal deposition. This study utilized radiography, whole mount staining, histology, and conventional electron microscopy to establish a maturation timeline of mineral formation in 1- to 6-week-old metapodophalangeal sesamoids from CD-1 mice. An intimate cellular and structural relationship was documented in more detail than previously described between the sesamoid bone, tendon, and fibrocartilage enthesis at the metapodophalangeal joint. Sesamoid calcification began in 1-week lateral sesamoids of the murine metacarpophalangeal joint of the second digit. All sesamoids were completely calcified by 4 weeks. Transmission electron microscopy of 2-week metacarpophalangeal sesamoids revealed extensive Type I collagen in the associated tendon and fibrocartilage insertion sites and Type II collagen and proteoglycan networks in the interior of the sesamoid. No extracellular matrix vesicles were documented. The results demonstrate that murine sesamoid bones consist of cartilage elaborated by chondrocytes that predominantly synthesize and secrete Type II collagen and proteoglycan. Type II collagen and proteoglycans appear responsible for the onset and progression of mineral formation in this tissue. These data contribute to new understanding of the biochemistry, ultrastructure, and mineralization of sesamoids in relation to other bones and calcifying cartilage and tendon of vertebrates. They also reflect on the potentially important but currently uncertain function of sesamoids as serving as a fulcrum point along a tendon, foreshortening its length and altering advantageously its biomechanical properties with respect to tendon-muscle interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison H Doherty
- Department of Integrative Medical Sciences, Northeastern Ohio Universities Colleges of Medicine and Pharmacy, Rootstown, Ohio, USA.
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11
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Cegielski M, Izykowska I, Podhorska-Okolow M, Gworys B, Zabel M, Dziegiel P. Histological Studies of Growing and Mature Antlers of Red Deer Stags (Cervus elaphus). Anat Histol Embryol 2009; 38:184-8. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0264.2008.00906.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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12
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Kierdorf U, Kierdorf H, Szuwart T. Deer antler regeneration: Cells, concepts, and controversies. J Morphol 2007; 268:726-38. [PMID: 17538973 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.10546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The periodic replacement of antlers is an exceptional regenerative process in mammals, which in general are unable to regenerate complete body appendages. Antler regeneration has traditionally been viewed as an epimorphic process closely resembling limb regeneration in urodele amphibians, and the terminology of the latter process has also been applied to antler regeneration. More recent studies, however, showed that, unlike urodele limb regeneration, antler regeneration does not involve cell dedifferentiation and the formation of a blastema from these dedifferentiated cells. Rather, these studies suggest that antler regeneration is a stem-cell-based process that depends on the periodic activation of, presumably neural-crest-derived, periosteal stem cells of the distal pedicle. The evidence for this hypothesis is reviewed and as a result, a new concept of antler regeneration as a process of stem-cell-based epimorphic regeneration is proposed that does not involve cell dedifferentiation or transdifferentiation. Antler regeneration illustrates that extensive appendage regeneration in a postnatal mammal can be achieved by a developmental process that differs in several fundamental aspects from limb regeneration in urodeles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uwe Kierdorf
- Department of Biology, University of Hildesheim, 31141 Hildesheim, Germany.
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13
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Tanck E, Van Donkelaar CC, Jepsen KJ, Goldstein SA, Weinans H, Burger EH, Huiskes R. The mechanical consequences of mineralization in embryonic bone. Bone 2004; 35:186-90. [PMID: 15207755 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2004.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2003] [Revised: 02/05/2004] [Accepted: 02/19/2004] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of mineralization on the mechanical properties of embryonic bone rudiments. For this purpose, four-point bending experiments were performed on unmineralized and mineralized embryonic mouse ribs at 16 and 17 days of gestational age. Young's modulus was calculated using force-displacement data from the experiment in combination with finite element analysis (FEA). For the unmineralized specimens, a calculated average for the Young's modulus of 1.11 (+/- 0.62) MPa was established after corrections for sticking to the four-point bending device and aspect ratio, which is the ratio between the length of the bone and its diameter. For the mineralized specimens, the value was 117 (+/- 62) MPa after corrections. Hence, Young's moduli of embryonic bone rudiments increase by two orders of magnitude within 1 day, during endochondral ossification. As an effect, the hypertrophic chondrocytes in the calcifying cartilage experience a significant change in their mechanical environment. The chondrocytes are effectively stress shielded, which means that they do not carry stresses since stresses are supported by the stiffest parts of the tissue, which are in this case the diaphyseal cortex and the calcified matrix. The deformability of the hypertrophic chondrocytes is, therefore, severely reduced. Since the transition is so sudden and enormous, it can be seen as a process of 'catastrophic' proportion for the hypertrophic chondrocytes. The subsequent resorption of calcified cartilage and the expansion of the marrow cavity could be consequential to stress shielding.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Tanck
- Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University Medical Center Nijmegen, 6500 HB, The Netherlands.
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14
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Adams CS, Shapiro IM. The fate of the terminally differentiated chondrocyte: evidence for microenvironmental regulation of chondrocyte apoptosis. CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ORAL BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ORAL BIOLOGISTS 2003; 13:465-73. [PMID: 12499240 DOI: 10.1177/154411130201300604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Chondrocytes contained within the epiphyseal growth plate promote rapid bone growth. To achieve growth, cells activate a maturation program that results in an increase in chondrocyte number and volume and elaboration of a mineralized matrix; subsequently, the matrix is resorbed and the terminally differentiated cells are deleted from the bone. The major objective of this review is to examine the fate of the epiphyseal chondrocytes in the growing bone. Current studies strongly suggest that the terminally differentiated epiphyseal cells are deleted from the cartilage by apoptosis. Indeed, morphological, biochemical, and end-labeling techniques confirm that death is through the apoptotic pathway. Since the induction of apoptosis is spatially and temporally linked to the removal of the cartilage matrix, current studies have examined the apoptogenic activity of Ca(2+)-, Pi-, and RGD-containing peptides of extracellular matrix proteins. It is observed that all of these molecules are powerful apoptogens. With respect to the molecular mechanism of apoptosis, studies of cell death with Pi as an apoptogen indicate that the anion is transported into the cytosol via a Na(+/)Pi transporter. Subsequently, there is activation of caspases, generation of NO, and a decrease in the thiol reserve. Finally, we examine the notion that chondrocytes transdifferentiate into osteoblasts, and briefly review evidence for, and the rationale of, the transdifferentiation process. It is concluded that specific microenvironments exist in cartilage that can serve to direct chondrocyte apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher S Adams
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Thomas Jefferson Medical College, 1015 Walnut Street, 501, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA.
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Szuwart T, Kierdorf H, Kierdorf U, Clemen G. Histochemical and ultrastructural studies of cartilage resorption and acid phosphatase activity during antler growth in fallow deer (Dama dama). THE ANATOMICAL RECORD 2002; 268:66-72. [PMID: 12209566 DOI: 10.1002/ar.10135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Cartilage resorption in forming primary fallow deer antlers was studied by histochemistry and electron microscopy. A high activity of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP), a histochemical marker of skeletal resorbing cells, was first detected in cells located in the mesenchymal tissue separating the columns of hypertrophic cartilage. No cartilage resorption was observed in this region. Intense TRAP staining occurred in large multinucleated cells (identified as inactive osteoclasts) as well as in smaller cells (regarded as mononuclear osteoclast progenitors). On the basis of these findings it was concluded that this was the region where osteoclasts differentiated from progenitor cells. Further proximally, the mineralized cartilage was eroded by active osteoclasts that were located in Howship's lacunae and exhibited an intense TRAP staining. Electron microscopy showed that the cells identified as inactive osteoclasts lacked a polarized organization. In contrast, the active osteoclasts in the zone of cartilage resorption exhibited a typical polarized organization: the nuclei congregated near the basolateral cell surface, and there was a zone of deep membrane infoldings (ruffled border) surrounded by a clear zone at the apical cell pole adjacent to the resorption surface of the mineralized cartilage. The multinucleated cartilage-resorbing cells of the forming antler thus exhibited the typical histochemical and morphological features of active mammalian osteoclasts. Low levels of TRAP activity were also observed in hypertrophic chondrocytes; however, the specificity and potential significance of this staining remain to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Szuwart
- Anatomical Institute, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.
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16
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Boskey AL. Pathogenesis of cartilage calcification: mechanisms of crystal deposition in cartilage. Curr Rheumatol Rep 2002; 4:245-51. [PMID: 12010610 DOI: 10.1007/s11926-002-0072-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Apatite crystals form in physiologically calcified tissues, including the hyaline cartilage of the epiphyseal growth plate. While apatite crystals appear as unwanted deposits in other cartilage sites, more frequently, crystalline materials other than or in addition to apatite develop in dystrophic cartilage deposits. These crystalline materials include calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate and other calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate phases, monosodium urate, calcium oxalate, cholesterol, and crystallized proteins. This review describes the physical chemistry of crystal deposition and the events that occur in the growth plate as a basis for understanding the pathogenesis of nonphysiologic crystal deposition in cartilage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adele L Boskey
- Hospital for Special Surgery, 535 East 70th Street, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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Kierdorf U, Kierdorf H. Pedicle and first antler formation in deer: Anatomical, histological, and developmental aspects. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02285354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Faucheux C, Nesbitt SA, Horton MA, Price JS. Cells in regenerating deer antler cartilage provide a microenvironment that supports osteoclast differentiation. J Exp Biol 2001; 204:443-55. [PMID: 11171297 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.204.3.443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Deer antlers are a rare example of mammalian epimorphic regeneration. Each year, the antlers re-grow by a modified endochondral ossification process that involves extensive remodelling of cartilage by osteoclasts. This study identified regenerating antler cartilage as a site of osteoclastogenesis in vivo. An in vitro model was then developed to study antler osteoclast differentiation. Cultured as a high-density micromass, cells from non-mineralised cartilage supported the differentiation of large numbers of osteoclast-like multinucleated cells (MNCs) in the absence of factors normally required for osteoclastogenesis. After 48 h of culture, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP)-positive mononuclear cells (osteoclast precursors) were visible, and by day 14 a large number of TRAP-positive MNCs had formed (783+/−200 per well, mean +/− s.e.m., N=4). Reverse transcriptase/polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) showed that receptor activator of NF κ B ligand (RANKL) and macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF) mRNAs were expressed in micromass cultures. Antler MNCs have the phenotype of osteoclasts from mammalian bone; they expressed TRAP, vitronectin and calcitonin receptors and, when cultured on dentine, formed F-actin rings and large resorption pits. When cultured on glass, antler MNCs appeared to digest the matrix of the micromass and endocytose type I collagen. Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) may play a role in the resorption of this non-mineralised matrix since it is highly expressed in 100 % of MNCs. In contrast, cathepsin K, another enzyme expressed in osteoclasts from bone, is only highly expressed in resorbing MNCs cultured on dentine. This study identifies the deer antler as a valuable model that can be used to study the differentiation and function of osteoclasts in adult regenerating mineralised tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Faucheux
- The Bone and Mineral Centre, Department of Medicine, University College London, The Rayne Institute, London WC1E 6JJ, UK.
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