Contraception for women with diabetes: an update

How does gestational diabetes affect postpartum contraception in nondiabetic primiparous women?

BACKGROUND

The aim of the study is to explore the effect of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) on postpartum contraception among nondiabetic primiparous women.

STUDY DESIGN

Secondary analyses of 2004-2005 Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System data from Michigan and Oregon.

METHODS

Analyses were performed on 2332 women, taking complex survey design into consideration. Crude and adjusted odds ratios (cOR; aOR) and their 95% confidence intervals (CI) were obtained using logistic regression analyses.

RESULTS

Postpartum use of hormonal (aOR=1.12, 95% CI: 0.68-1.83) and nonhormonal (aOR=1.18, 95% CI: 0.73-1.92) contraception were not influenced by GDM after controlling for confounders. Female sterilization was more frequently adopted (cOR=4.99, 95% CI: 1.13-22.17) and depomedroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) (cOR=0.53, 95% CI: 0.23-1.18), diaphragm/cervical cap/sponge (cOR=0.13, 95% CI: 0.016-0.95) and cervical ring (cOR=0.13, 95% CI: 0.017-0.98) were less frequently adopted by women reporting GDM diagnosis.

CONCLUSION

With few exceptions, GDM does not appear to affect postpartum hormonal and nonhormonal contraception.

Hormonal contraception in women with diabetes mellitus: special considerations

Contraception is an important issue for women with diabetes mellitus as unplanned pregnancy can present major maternal and perinatal complications. The rising incidence of diabetes worldwide means increasing thought needs to be given to contraceptive options for these women. This article reviews current evidence and recommends best practice for prescribing hormonal contraceptives in women with diabetes. Women with diabetes have the same choice of contraceptives as the general population, but the potential metabolic effects of hormonal methods need to be considered in relation to an individual's diabetic profile and their need for effective contraception. Currently, there appear to be wide variations in the way that professionals evaluate the risk-benefit equation, and significant differences in prescribing practice have been identified. The World Health Organization (WHO) has established medical eligibility criteria to assist in assessing such risks. Cardiovascular disease is a major concern, and for women with diabetes who have macrovascular or microvascular complications, nonhormonal methods are recommended. Studies of young women with diabetes and no vascular changes who are taking low-dose combined oral contraceptives (COCs) have been reassuring, although larger long-term studies are needed. There is little evidence that any changes in glycemic control caused by COCs are of clinical relevance. While low-dose COCs appear to cause minimal change in the lipid profile and may even be beneficial in this respect, there are some concerns in relation to progestogen only pills and injectable contraceptives in certain women. There is little evidence of best practice for the follow-up of women with diabetes prescribed hormonal contraception. It is generally agreed that blood pressure, weight, and body mass index measurements should be ascertained, and blood glucose levels and baseline lipid profiles assessed as relevant. Research on hormonal contraception has been carried out in healthy populations; more studies are needed in women with diabetes and women who have increased risks of cardiovascular disease.

Effect of a levonorgestrel intrauterine system on women with type 1 diabetes: a randomized trial

OBJECTIVE

Women with diabetes need safe, effective contraception. Although intrauterine devices provide superior contraception, concerns remain that progestin absorbed systemically from the levonorgestrel-releasing device may impair carbohydrate metabolism. To examine the effect of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system on glucose metabolism in diabetic women.

METHODS

We randomly assigned 62 women with uncomplicated insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus to either a levonorgestrel-releasing or a copper T 380A intrauterine device. The primary outcome to assess glucose metabolism was glycosylated hemoglobin; fasting serum-glucose levels and daily insulin dose requirements over 12 months of observation were examined as well.

RESULTS

Outcome data were available for 29 women using the levonorgestrel-releasing and 30 using the copper device. At 12 months, mean glycosylated levels were similar for women of the 2 groups (6.3%, standard deviation [SD] +/- 1.5 compared with 6.3%, SD +/- 1.3, respectively). The same was true for mean fasting-serum glucose levels (7.4 mM, SD +/- 4.2 compared with 7.5 mM, SD +/- 4.2) and daily insulin doses (35.1 units, SD +/- 12.8 compared with 36.4 units, SD +/- 9.0). No important differences were noted at either 6 weeks or 6 months.

CONCLUSION

The levonorgestrel-releasing device had no adverse effect on glucose metabolism, even at the 6-week observation when systemic levels of levonorgestrel would have been higher than at later observations. Concern about a potential adverse effect of this contraceptive on glucose control is unwarranted, and its use in women with diabetes should be liberalized.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

I.

Contraception in diabetic women: an Italian study

Over 1 year, a survey on contraception and obstetric history was performed on a cohort of 667 Caucasian fertile diabetic women (446, type 1 and 201, type 2) living in Italy.

RESULTS

Of these women, 30.4% used hormonal contraceptives, 12.0% intra-uterine device (IUD), 10.7% declared they used no contraception, 47.0% only utilised barrier and/or natural methods. However, irrespective of their previous contraceptive strategy, 7.2% of all the studied population was surgically sterilized during caesarean section.

HORMONAL CONTRACEPTION

Of these women, 60.4% was prescribed by a gynaecologist, 11.2% by a diabetologist, 15% by both of them and 13.4% by others. The proportion using oral contraception was similar among types 1 and 2 women (29.4% versus 27.8%, chi(2) = ns).

SMOKING HABITS

Of women taking hormonal contraception, 30.0% were smokers.

EDUCATIONAL LEVEL

University graduates (37.1%), high school leaves (32.2%), secondary school (28.2%) and primary school leaves (15.5%) used oral contraceptives (OC).

OBSTETRIC HISTORY

The mean number of deliveries was 1.14 +/- 1.1, of miscarriages was 1.3 +/- 0.7 and of induced abortions 0.17 +/- 0.5. Planning of at least one pregnancy was reported in 29.4% of patients.

Contraception in diabetic women: comparative metabolic study of Norplant, depot medroxyprogesterone acetate, low dose oral contraceptive pill and CuT380A

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the long-term intake of Norplant, depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) and low dose oral contraceptive pill (OCs) on glycemic control, lipoprotein metabolism and coagulation profile in diabetic women.

METHODS

Prospective comparative study including 80 uncomplicated controlled diabetic women. Twenty women allocated to each group. Clinical, metabolic and coagulation status were followed up at 3, 6 and 9 months' visits.

RESULTS

Fasting blood sugar increased in OCs and DMPA users. Total cholesterol (TC) and LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C) decreased in all groups except DMPA where it increased. Triglyceride (TG) only increased in OCs group. HDL-cholesterol (HDL-C) increased with OCs and decreased with Norplant and DMPA. Compared to IUD users, significantly higher percentage TG and HDL-C and lower LDL-C were observed in OCs users, while DMPA users had significantly higher TC and LDL-C and lower HDL-C. Partial thromboplastin time was prolonged in Norplant users.

CONCLUSION

In diabetics, Norplant results in minimal metabolic alterations followed by OCs while DMPA has unfavorable outcome.

Patterns of contraception in UK women with Type 1 diabetes mellitus: a GP database study

AIM

To establish the patterns of contraceptive prescribing for women aged 15-49 with Type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM) and compare them with the patterns in women without diabetes.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study using a UK primary care database.

RESULTS

Nine hundred and thirty-eight women with a diagnosis of Type 1 DM were identified. A comparison group of women aged 15-49 without diabetes (n = 10000) were randomly selected from the database. Twenty-five per cent of the women with diabetes and 32% without diabetes were prescribed a hormonal contraceptive in 1994. Women with Type 1 DM were more likely to be prescribed a combined oral contraceptive than a progestogen only pill (POP) but were 2.12 (95% CI 1.65-2.72) times more likely to be prescribed a POP than women without diabetes and were less likely to be prescribed a combined pill - odds ratio 0.53 (95% CI 0.44-0.64). The pregnancy rate in women with Type 1 DM over the age of 25 years was lower than for women without diabetes. Women under 25 years with Type 1 DM seemed more likely to record a pregnancy.

CONCLUSIONS

Differences between women with Type 1 DM and those without diabetes highlight the variation in the way that GPs and patients evaluate the risks and benefits when deciding on contraception.

Oral contraception and adolescent women with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: risks, benefits, and implications for practice

Healthcare providers who work with adolescents with diabetes are in an ideal position to provide education and support regarding contraceptive issues. Diabetes educators and other health professionals who counsel teens focus on other aspects of diabetes care and management but frequently do not address sexual issues or assess contraceptive practices. The purpose of this paper is to review oral contraceptive issues for teens with diabetes and to provide practice implications for health professionals who are in a favorable position to influence the quality of diabetes and general health care for these adolescents.