Exploiting the hallmarks of cancer: the future conquest of breast cancer

Melatonin and Its Role in the Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) in Cancer

The epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a cell-biological program that occurs during the progression of several physiological processes and that can also take place during pathological situations such as carcinogenesis. The EMT program consists of the sequential activation of a number of intracellular signaling pathways aimed at driving epithelial cells toward the acquisition of a series of intermediate phenotypic states arrayed along the epithelial-mesenchymal axis. These phenotypic features include changes in the motility, conformation, polarity and functionality of cancer cells, ultimately leading cells to stemness, increased invasiveness, chemo- and radioresistance and the formation of cancer metastasis. Amongst the different existing types of the EMT, type 3 is directly involved in carcinogenesis. A type 3 EMT occurs in neoplastic cells that have previously acquired genetic and epigenetic alterations, specifically affecting genes involved in promoting clonal outgrowth and invasion. Markers such as E-cadherin; N-cadherin; vimentin; and transcription factors (TFs) like Twist, Snail and ZEB are considered key molecules in the transition. The EMT process is also regulated by microRNA expression. Many miRNAs have been reported to repress EMT-TFs. Thus, Snail 1 is repressed by miR-29, miR-30a and miR-34a; miR-200b downregulates Slug; and ZEB1 and ZEB2 are repressed by miR-200 and miR-205, respectively. Occasionally, some microRNA target genes act downstream of the EMT master TFs; thus, Twist1 upregulates the levels of miR-10b. Melatonin is an endogenously produced hormone released mainly by the pineal gland. It is widely accepted that melatonin exerts oncostatic actions in a large variety of tumors, inhibiting the initiation, progression and invasion phases of tumorigenesis. The molecular mechanisms underlying these inhibitory actions are complex and involve a great number of processes. In this review, we will focus our attention on the ability of melatonin to regulate some key EMT-related markers, transcription factors and micro-RNAs, summarizing the multiple ways by which this hormone can regulate the EMT. Since melatonin has no known toxic side effects and is also known to help overcome drug resistance, it is a good candidate to be considered as an adjuvant drug to conventional cancer therapies.

The role of matrix stiffness in breast cancer progression: a review

The significance of matrix stiffness in cancer development has been investigated in recent years. The gradual elastic force the extracellular matrix imparts to cells, known as matrix stiffness, is one of the most important types of mechanical stimulation. Increased matrix stiffness alters the biological activity of cells, which promotes the growth of numerous malignancies, including breast cancer. Comprehensive studies have demonstrated that increasing matrix stiffness activates molecular signaling pathways that are closely linked to breast cancer progression. There are many articles exploring the relationship between mechanism hardness and breast cancer, so we wanted to provide a systematic summary of recent research advances. In this review, we briefly introduce the mechanism of matrix stiffness in breast cancer, elaborate on the effect of extracellular matrix stiffness on breast cancer biological behavior and signaling pathways, and finally, we will talk about breast cancer treatment that focuses on matrix stiffness.

Novel promising benzoxazole/benzothiazole-derived immunomodulatory agents: Design, synthesis, anticancer evaluation, and in silico ADMET analysis

Eleven novel benzoxazole/benzothiazole-based thalidomide analogs were designed and synthesized to obtain new effective antitumor immunomodulatory agents. The synthesized compounds were evaluated for their cytotoxic activities against HepG-2, HCT-116, PC3, and MCF-7 cells. Generally, the open analogs with semicarbazide and thiosemicarbazide moieties (10, 13a-c, 14, and 17a,b) exhibited higher cytotoxic activities than derivatives with closed glutarimide moiety (8a-d). In particular, compound 13a (IC50  = 6.14, 5.79, 10.26, and 4.71 µM against HepG-2, HCT-116, PC3, and MCF-7, respectively) and 14 (IC50  = 7.93, 8.23, 12.37, and 5.43 µM, respectively) exhibited the highest anticancer activities against the four tested cell lines. The most active compounds 13a and 14 were further evaluated for their in vitro immunomodulatory activities on tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), caspase-8 (CASP8), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and nuclear factor kappa-B p65 (NF-κB p65) in HCT-116 cells. Compounds 13a and 14 showed a remarkable and significant reduction in TNF-α. Furthermore, they showed significant elevation in CASP8 levels. Also, they significantly inhibited VEGF. In addition, compound 13a showed significant decreases in the level of NF-κB p65 while compound 14 demonstrated an insignificant decrease with respect to thalidomide. Moreover, our derivatives exhibited good in silico absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination, toxicity (ADMET) profiles.

Role of Molecular Targeted Therapeutic Drugs in Treatment of Breast Cancer: A Review Article

Breast cancer is a multifactor, multistage, and heterogeneous disease. Systemic treatment of breast cancer has changed significantly over the last decade. With a better knowledge of the pathogenesis, researchers and scientists have discovered numerous signaling pathways and synonymous therapeutic targets in breast cancer. Because of the molecular nature of breast cancer, which makes it difficult to understand, previous attempts to treat or prevent it have failed. However, recent decades have provided effective therapeutic targets for treatment. In this review, literature or information on various targeted therapy for breast cancer is discussed. English language articles were explored in numerous directory or databases like PubMed, Web of Sciences, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and Scopus. The important keywords used for searching databases are "Breast cancer," "Targeted therapy in breast cancer," "Therapeutic drugs in breast cancer," and "Molecular targets in breast cancer."

Coating of chitosan on poly D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid thymoquinone nanoparticles enhances the anti-tumor activity in triple-negative breast cancer

Breast cancer is the second most common cancer around the world. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is characterized by the absence of three receptors: progesterone, estrogen, and human epidermal growth factor-2 receptor (HER2). Various synthetic chemotherapies have gained attention but they caused unwanted side effects. Therefore, some secondary therapies are now becoming famous against this disease. For instance, natural compounds have been extensively researched against many diseases. However, enzymatic degradation and low solubility remain a major concern. To combat these issues, various nanoparticles have been synthesized and optimized from time to time, which increases its solubility and hence therapeutic potential of a particular drug increases. In this study, we have synthesized Poly D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) loaded thymoquinone (TQ) nanoparticle (PLGA-TQ-NPs) and then coated them by chitosan (CS) (PLGA-CS-TQ-NPs), which was characterized by different methods. Size of non-coated NPs was 105 nm with PDI value of 0.3 and the size of coated NPs was 125 nm with PDI value of 0.4. Encapsulation efficiency (EE%) and Drug loading (DL%) was found to be 70.5 ± 2.33 and 3.38 for non-coated and 82.3 ± 3.11 and 2.66 for coated NPs respectively. We have also analysed their cell viability against MDA-MB-231 and SUM-149 TNBC cell lines. The resultant, nanoformulations exhibit anti-cancerous activity in a dose and time-dependent manner for MDA-MB-231 and SUM-149 cell lines with an IC₅₀ value of (10.31 ± 1.15, 15.60 ± 1.25, 28.01 ± 1.24) and (23.54 ± 1.24, 22.37 ± 1.25, 35 ± 1.27) for TQ free, PLGA-TQ-NPs and PLGA-CS-TQ-NPs respectively. For the first time, we have developed a nanoformulations of PLGA loaded TQ coated with CS NPs (PLGA-CS-TQ-NPs) against TNBC which led to their enhanced anti-cancerous effects.

Pectin: A Bioactive Food Polysaccharide with Cancer Preventive Potential

Pectin is an acidic heteropolysaccharide found in the cell walls and the primary and middle lamella of land plants. To be authorized as a food additive, industrial pectins must meet strict guidelines set forth by the Food and Agricultural Organization and must contain at least 65% polygalacturonic acid to achieve the E440 level. Fruit pectin derived from oranges or apples is commonly used in the food industry to gel or thicken foods and to stabilize acid-based milk beverages. It is a naturally occurring component and can be ingested by dietary consumption of fruit and vegetables. Preventing long-term chronic diseases like diabetes and heart disease is an important role of dietary carbohydrates. Colon and breast cancer are among the diseases for which data suggest that modified pectin (MP), specifically modified citrus pectin (MCP), has beneficial effects on the development and spread of malignancies, in addition to its benefits as a soluble dietary fiber. Cellular and animal studies and human clinical trials have provided corroborating data. Although pectin has many diverse functional qualities, this review focuses on various modifications used to develop MP and its benefits for cancer prevention, bioavailability, clinical trials, and toxicity studies. This review concludes that pectin has anti-cancer characteristics that have been found to inhibit tumor development and proliferation in a wide variety of cancer cells. Nevertheless, further clinical and basic research is required to confirm the chemopreventive or therapeutic role of specific dietary carbohydrate molecules.

Integrated Transcriptome and Metabolomic Analysis Reveal Anti-Angiogenic Properties of Disarib, a Novel Bcl2-Specific Inhibitor

Transcriptomic profiling of several drugs in cancer cell lines has been utilised to obtain drug-specific signatures and guided combination therapy to combat drug resistance and toxicity. Global metabolomics reflects changes due to altered activity of enzymes, environmental factors, etc. Integrating transcriptomics and metabolomics can provide genotype-phenotype correlation, providing meaningful insights into alterations in gene expression and its outcome to understand differential metabolism and guide therapy. This study uses a multi-omics approach to understand the global gene expression and metabolite changes induced by Disarib, a novel Bcl2-specific inhibitor in the Ehrlich adenocarcinoma (EAC) breast cancer mouse model. RNAseq analysis was performed on EAC mouse tumours treated with Disarib and compared to the controls. The expression of 6 oncogenes and 101 tumour suppressor genes interacting with Bcl2 and Bak were modulated upon Disarib treatment. Cancer hallmark pathways like DNA repair, Cell cycle, angiogenesis, and mitochondrial metabolism were downregulated, and programmed cell death platelet-related pathways were upregulated. Global metabolomic profiling using LC-MS revealed that Oncometabolites like carnitine, oleic acid, glycine, and arginine were elevated in tumour mice compared to normal and were downregulated upon Disarib treatment. Integrated transcriptomic and metabolomic profiles identified arginine metabolism, histidine, and purine metabolism to be altered upon Disarib treatment. Pro-angiogenic metabolites, arginine, palmitic acid, oleic acid, and myristoleic acid were downregulated in Disarib-treated mice. We further validated the effect of Disarib on angiogenesis by qRT-PCR analysis of genes in the VEGF pathway. Disarib treatment led to the downregulation of pro-angiogenic markers. Furthermore, the chorioallantoic membrane assay displayed a reduction in the formation of the number of secondary blood vessels upon Disarib treatment. Disarib reduces tumours by reducing oncometabolite and activating apoptosis and downregulating angiogenesis.

Biological Evaluation of Photodynamic Effect Mediated by Nanoparticles with Embedded Porphyrin Photosensitizer

Clinically approved photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a minimally invasive treatment procedure that uses three key components: photosensitization, a light source, and tissue oxygen. However, the photodynamic effect is limited by both the photophysical properties of photosensitizers as well as their low selectivity, leading to damage to adjacent normal tissue and/or inadequate biodistribution. Nanoparticles (NPs) represent a new option for PDT that can overcome most of the limitations of conventional photosensitizers and can also promote photosensitizer accumulation in target cells through enhanced permeation and retention effects. In this in vitro study, the photodynamic effect of TPP photosensitizers embedded in polystyrene nanoparticles was observed on the non-tumor NIH3T3 cell line and HeLa and G361 tumor cell lines. The efficacy was evaluated by viability assay, while reactive oxygen species production, changes in membrane mitochondrial potential, and morphological changes before and after treatment were imaged by atomic force microscopy. The tested nanoparticles with embedded TPP were found to become cytotoxic only after activation by blue light (414 nm) due to the production of reactive oxygen species. The photodynamic effect observed in this evaluation was significantly higher in both tumor lines than the effect observed in the non-tumor line, and the resulting phototoxicity depended on the concentration of photosensitizer and irradiation time.

Zein as a versatile biopolymer: different shapes for different biomedical applications

In recent years, the interest regarding the use of proteins as renewable resources has deeply intensified. The strongest impact of these biomaterials is clear in the field of smart medicines and biomedical engineering. Zein, a vegetal protein extracted from corn, is a suitable biomaterial for all the above-mentioned purposes due to its biodegradability and biocompatibility. The controlled drug delivery of small molecules, fabrication of bioactive membranes, and 3D assembly of scaffold for tissue regeneration are just some of the topics now being extensively investigated and reported in the literature. Herein, we review the recent literature on zein as a biopolymer and its applications in the biomedical world, focusing on the different shapes and sizes through which it can be manipulated.

Zein a versatile biomaterial in the biomedical field. Easy to chemically functionalize with good emulsification properties, can be employed in drug delivery, fabrication of bioactive membranes and 3D scaffolds for tissue regeneration.

The Effective Combination between 3D Cancer Models and Stimuli-Responsive Nanoscale Drug Delivery Systems

Stimuli-responsive drug-delivery systems (DDSs) have emerged as a potential tool for applications in healthcare, mainly in the treatment of cancer where versatile nanocarriers are co-triggered by endogenous and exogenous stimuli. Two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures are the most important in vitro model used to evaluate the anticancer activity of these stimuli-responsive DDSs due to their easy manipulation and versatility. However, some limitations suggest that these in vitro models poorly predict the outcome of in vivo studies. One of the main drawbacks of 2D cell cultures is their inadequate representation of the 3D environment’s physiological complexity, which sees cells interact with each other and the extracellular matrix (ECM) according to their specific cellular organization. In this regard, 3D cancer models are a promising approach that can overcome the main shortcomings of 2D cancer cell cultures, as these in vitro models possess many peculiarities by which they mimic in vivo tumors, including physiologically relevant cell–cell and cell–ECM interactions. This is, in our opinion, even more relevant when a stimuli-responsive DDS is being investigated. In this review, we therefore report and discuss endogenous and exogenous stimuli-responsive DDSs whose effectiveness has been tested using 3D cancer cell cultures.

Identification and Validation of a Five-Gene Signature Associated With Overall Survival in Breast Cancer Patients

BACKGROUND

Recent years, the global prevalence of breast cancer (BC) was still high and the underlying molecular mechanisms remained largely unknown. The investigation of prognosis-related biomarkers had become an urgent demand.

RESULTS

In this study, gene expression profiles and clinical information of breast cancer patients were downloaded from the TCGA database. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were estimated by Gene Ontology (GO) analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis. A risk score formula involving five novel prognostic associated biomarkers (EDN2, CLEC3B, SV2C, WT1, and MUC2) were then constructed by LASSO. The prognostic value of the risk model was further confirmed in the TCGA entire cohort and an independent external validation cohort. To explore the biological functions of the selected genes, in vitro assays were performed, indicating that these novel biomarkers could markedly influence breast cancer progression.

CONCLUSIONS

We established a predictive five-gene signature, which could be helpful for a personalized management in breast cancer patients.

Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems for enhanced diagnosis and therapy of oral cancer

Oral cancer is a common malignant life-threatening tumor. Despite some advances in traditional therapy, mortality and mobidity rates are high due to delayed diagnosis and ineffective treatment. Additionally, some patients inevitably suffer from various fatal adverse effects during the course of therapy. Therefore, it is imperative to develop novel methods to eradicate oral cancer cells with minimal adverse effects on normal cells. Nanotechnology is a promising and novel vehicle for the diagnosis and treatment of oral cancer with encouraging recent achievements. In this review, we present state-of-the-art nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems employed in the domain of oral cancer, especially for its enhanced diagnosis and therapy. We describe in detail the types of nanotechnology used in the management of oral cancer and summarize administration routes of nanodrugs. Finally, the potential and prospects of nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems as promising modalities of diagnosis and therapy of oral cancer are highlighted.

Cancer Nanotechnology: A New Revolution for Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy

BACKGROUND

Nanotechnology is gaining significant attention worldwide for cancer treatment. Nanobiotechnology encourages the combination of diagnostics with therapeutics, which is a vital component of a customized way to deal with the malignancy. Nanoparticles are being used as Nanomedicine which participates in diagnosis and treatment of various diseases including cancer. The unique characteristic of Nanomedicine i.e. their high surface to volume ratio enables them to tie, absorb, and convey small biomolecule like DNA, RNA, drugs, proteins, and other molecules to targeted site and thus enhances the efficacy of therapeutic agents.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the present article is to provide an insight of several aspect of nanotechnology in cancer therapeutics such as various nanomaterials as drug vehicle, drug release strategies and role of nanotechnology in cancer therapy.

METHODS

We performed an extensive search on bibliographic database for research article on nanotechnology and cancer therapeutics and further compiled the necessary information from various articles into the present article.

RESULTS

Cancer nanotechnology confers a unique technology against cancer through early diagnosis, prevention, personalized therapy by utilizing nanoparticles and quantum dots.Nano-biotechnology plays an important role in the discovery of cancer biomarkers. Quantum dots, gold nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, gold nanowires etc. have been developed as a carrier of biomolecules that can detect cancer biomarkers. Nanoparticle assisted cancer detection and monitoring involves biomolecules like proteins, antibody fragments, DNA fragments, and RNA fragments as the base of cancer biomarkers.

CONCLUSION

This review highlights various approaches of cancer nanotechnology in the advancement of cancer therapy.

Composition design and medical application of liposomes

Liposomes, which possess the properties of nano-scale, biofilm similar structure, excellent biocompatibility, become more and more useful in the drug development as the delivery system. Liposomes are relatively stable, their aqueous phase could contain the hydrophilic drugs and their phospholipid bilayer should localize the lipophilic drugs. Moreover, their surface-modifiable characteristics have really extended the liposomes' application to targeting and environmental sensitive delivery system. In order to make the common liposome more fit the human and animal body's complex environment, the structural variation strategy in the head, tail and bond of lipid molecules have been employed to develop the different functionalized liposomes-based drug delivery system for the localizable relieve and organ/tissue targeting relieve. In this paper, we would like to summarize the recent development on the design and optimization of liposomes, including Long-circulation liposomes, Specific active targeting liposomes, Environmental sensitive liposomes, Multifunctional liposomes, and so on. And the liposome content selection and current status of clinical application are systematically discussed.

Carbon Nanomaterials for Targeted Cancer Therapy Drugs: A Critical Review

Cancer represents one of the main causes of human death in developed countries. Most current therapies, unfortunately, carry a number of side effects, such as toxicity and damage to healthy cells, as well as the risk of resistance and recurrence. Therefore, cancer research is trying to develop therapeutic procedures with minimal negative consequences. The use of nanomaterial-based systems appears to be one of them. In recent years, great progress has been made in the field using nanomaterials with high potential in biomedical applications. Carbon nanomaterials, thanks to their unique physicochemical properties, are gaining more and more popularity in cancer therapy. They are valued especially for their ability to deliver drugs or small therapeutic molecules to these cells. Through surface functionalization, they can specifically target tumor tissues, increasing the therapeutic potential and significantly reducing the adverse effects of therapy. Their potential future use could, therefore, be as vehicles for drug delivery. This review presents the latest findings of research studies using carbon nanomaterials in the treatment of various types of cancer. To carry out this study, different databases such as Web of Science, PubMed, MEDLINE and Google Scholar were employed. The findings of research studies chosen from more than 2000 viewed scientific publications from the last 15 years were compared.

Genomic alterations at the basis of treatment resistance in metastatic breast cancer: clinical applications

The standard of care for breast cancer has gradually evolved from empirical treatments based on clinical-pathological characteristics to the use of targeted approaches based on the molecular profile of the tumor. Consequently, an increasing number of molecularly targeted drugs have been developed. These drugs target specific alterations, called driver mutations, which confer a survival advantage to cancer cells. To date, the main challenge remains the identification of predictive biomarkers for the selection of the optimal treatment. On this basis, we evaluated a panel of 25 genes involved in the mechanisms of targeted treatment resistance, in 16 primary breast cancers and their matched recurrences, developed during treatment. Overall, we found a detection rate of mutations higher than that described in the literature. In particular, the most frequently mutated genes were ERBB2 and those involved in the PI3K/AKT/mTOR and the MAPK signaling pathways. The study revealed substantial discordances between primary tumors and metastases, stressing the need for analysis of metastatic tissues at recurrence. We observed that 85.7% of patients with an early-stage or locally advanced primary tumor showed at least one mutation in the primary tumor. This finding could explain the subsequent relapse and might therefore justify more targeted adjuvant treatments. Finally, the mutations detected in 50% of relapsed tissues could have guided subsequent treatment choices in a different way. This study demonstrates that mutation events may be present at diagnosis or arise during cancer treatment. As a result, profiling primary and metastatic tumor tissues may be a major step in defining optimal treatments.

Folate-targeted star-shaped cationic copolymer co-delivering docetaxel and MMP-9 siRNA for nasopharyngeal carcinoma therapy

The co-delivery of drug and gene has become the primary strategy in cancer therapy. Based on our previous work, to co-deliver docetaxel (DOC) and MMP-9 siRNA more efficiently for HNE-1 nasopharyngeal carcinoma therapy, a folate-modified star-shaped copolymer (FA-CD-PLLD) consisting of β-cyclodextrin (CD) and poly(L-lysine) dendron (PLLD) was synthesized, and then used for DOC and MMP-9 co-delivery. Different from commonly used amphiphilic copolymers micelles, the obtained CD derivative could be used directly for the combinatorial delivery of nucleic acid and hydrophobic DOC without a complicated micellization process. In vitro and in vivo assays are carried out to confirm the effectiveness of the target strategy and combined treatment. It was found that the conjugation of CD-PLLD with FA could enhance the DOC/MMP-9 delivery effect obviously, inducing a more significant apoptosis and decreasing invasive capacity of HEN-1 cells. In vivo assays showed that FA-CD-PLLD/DOC/MMP-9 could inhibit HNE-1 tumor growth and decrease PCNA expression effectively, indicating a promising strategy for nasopharyngeal carcinoma therapy. Moreover, the in vivo distribution of DOC and MMP-9, blood compatibility and toxicity are also explored.

Break Breast Cancer Addiction by CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing

Breast cancer is the leading diagnosed cancer for women globally. Evolution of breast cancer in tumorigenesis, metastasis and treatment resistance appears to be driven by the aberrant gene expression and protein degradation encoded by the cancer genomes. The uncontrolled cancer growth relies on these cellular events, thus constituting the cancerous programs and rendering the addiction towards them. These programs are likely the potential anticancer biomarkers for Personalized Medicine of breast cancer. This review intends to delineate the impact of the CRSPR/Cas-mediated genome editing in identification and validation of these anticancer biomarkers. It reviews the progress in three aspects of CRISPR/Cas9-mediated editing of the breast cancer genomes: Somatic genome editing, transcription and protein degradation addictions.

Green tea (Camellia sinensis) and l-theanine: Medicinal values and beneficial applications in humans-A comprehensive review

Green tea (Camellia sinensis) is a famous herb, and its extract has been extensively used in traditional Chinese medicinal system. In this context, several studies have revealed its health benefits and medicinal potentialities for several ailments. With ever increasing scientific knowledge, search for safer, potential and novel type of health-related supplements quest, scientists are re-directing their research interests to explore natural resources i.e. medicinal herbs/plant derived compounds. Green tea consumption has gained a special attention and popularity in the modern era of changing lifestyle. The present review is aimed to extend the current knowledge by highlighting the importance and beneficial applications of green tea in humans for safeguarding various health issues. Herein, we have extensively reviewed, analyzed, and compiled salient information on green tea from the authentic published literature available in PubMed and other scientific databases. Scientific literature evidenced that owing to the bioactive constituents including caffeine, l-theanine, polyphenols/flavonoids and other potent molecules, green tea has many pharmacological and physiological functions. It possesses multi-beneficial applications in treating various disorders of humans. This review also provides in-depth insights on the medicinal values of green tea which will be useful for researchers, medical professionals, veterinarians, nutritionists, pharmacists and pharmaceutical industry. Future research emphasis and promotional avenues are needed to explore its potential therapeutic applications for designing appropriate pharmaceuticals, complementary medicines, and effective drugs as well as popularize and propagate its multidimensional health benefits.

A database of breast oncogenic specific siRNAs

Breast cancer is a serious problem causing the death of women across the world. At present, one of the major challenges is to design drugs to target breast cancer specific gene(s). RNA interference (RNAi) is an important technique for targeted gene silencing that may lead to promising novel therapeutic strategies for breast cancer. Therefore, identification of such molecules having high oncogene specificity is the need of the hour. Here, we have developed a database named as Breast Oncogenic Specific siRNAs (BOSS, http://bioinformatics.cimap.res.in/sharma/boss/) on the basis of the current research status on siRNA-mediated repression of oncogenes in different breast cancer cell lines. BOSS is a resource of experimentally validated breast oncogenic siRNAs, collected from research articles and patents published yet. The present database contains information on 865 breast oncogenic siRNA entries. Each entry provides comprehensive information of an siRNA that includes its name, sequence, target gene, type of cells, and inhibition value, etc. Additionally, some useful tools like siRNAMAP and BOSS BLAST were also developed and linked with the database. siRNAMAP can be used for the selection of best siRNA against a target gene while BOSS BLAST tool helps to locate the siRNA sequences in deferent oncogenes.

CD-PLLD co-delivering docetaxel and MMP-9 siRNA plasmid for nasopharyngeal carcinoma therapy in vivo

The co-delivery of a drug and a target gene has become a primary strategy in cancer therapy. Based on our previous study, a synthesized star‑shaped co‑polymer consisting of β‑cyclodextrin (CD) and a poly(L‑lysine) dendron (PLLD) was used to co-deliver docetaxel (DOC) and matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP‑9) small interfering RNA, via CD‑PLLD/DOC/MMP‑9 complexes, into mice implanted with HNE‑1 human nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) tumor cells in vivo. Unlike the commonly used amphiphilic co‑polymer micelles, the obtained CD derivative may be used directly for a combined delivery of nucleic acid and hydrophobic DOC without a complicated micellization process. In vivo assays demonstrated that CD‑PLLD/DOC/MMP‑9 inhibited HNE‑1 tumor growth and decreased proliferating cell nuclear antigen expression levels, indicating a potential strategy for NPC therapy. In addition, the distribution of DOC and MMP‑9 was investigated; CD‑PLLD/DOC/MMP‑9 complexes were phagocytized in reticuloendothelial systems, including the liver and spleen, which requires further study. Furthermore, the complexes did not cross the blood‑brain barrier due to their large molecular size, suggesting they may be relatively safe. Additionally, the complexes mediated increased DOC concentrations with prolonged blood circulation and EGFP expression in HNE‑1 tumors. These results suggest the future potential application of CD-PLLD/DOC/MMP-9 for NPC therapy.

Label-Free Proteome Analysis of Plasma from Patients with Breast Cancer: Stage-Specific Protein Expression

Breast cancer is one of the most commonly diagnosed types of cancer among women. Breast cancer mortality rates remain high probably because its diagnosis is hampered by inaccurate detection methods. Since changes in protein expression as well as modifications in protein glycosylation have been frequently reported in cancer development, the aim of this work was to study the differential expression as well as modifications of glycosylation of proteins from plasma of women with breast cancer at different stages of disease (n = 30) compared to healthy women (n = 10). A proteomics approach was used that depleted albumin and IgG from plasma followed by glycoprotein enrichment using immobilized Moraceae lectin (frutalin)-affinity chromatography and data-independent label-free mass spectrometric analysis. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD003106. As result, 57,016 peptides and 4,175 proteins among all samples were identified. From this, 40 proteins present in unbound (PI—proteins that did not interact with lectin) and bound (PII—proteins that interacted with lectin) fractions were differentially expressed. High levels of apolipoprotein A-II were detected here that were elevated significantly in the early and advanced stages of the disease. Apolipoprotein C-III was detected in both fractions, and its level was increased slightly in the PI fraction of patients with early-stage breast cancer and expressed at higher levels in the PII fraction of patients with early and intermediate stages. Clusterin was present at higher levels in both fractions of patients with early and intermediate stages of breast cancer. Our findings reveal a correlation between alterations in protein glycosylation, lipid metabolism, and the progression of breast cancer.

Molecular Biomarkers for Prediction of Targeted Therapy Response in Metastatic Breast Cancer: Trick or Treat?

In recent years, the study of genomic alterations and protein expression involved in the pathways of breast cancer carcinogenesis has provided an increasing number of targets for drugs development in the setting of metastatic breast cancer (i.e., trastuzumab, everolimus, palbociclib, etc.) significantly improving the prognosis of this disease. These drugs target specific molecular abnormalities that confer a survival advantage to cancer cells. On these bases, emerging evidence from clinical trials provided increasing proof that the genetic landscape of any tumor may dictate its sensitivity or resistance profile to specific agents and some studies have already showed that tumors treated with therapies matched with their molecular alterations obtain higher objective response rates and longer survival. Predictive molecular biomarkers may optimize the selection of effective therapies, thus reducing treatment costs and side effects. This review offers an overview of the main molecular pathways involved in breast carcinogenesis, the targeted therapies developed to inhibit these pathways, the principal mechanisms of resistance and, finally, the molecular biomarkers that, to date, are demonstrated in clinical trials to predict response/resistance to targeted treatments in metastatic breast cancer.

Apple pectin: A natural source for cancer suppression in 4T1 breast cancer cells in vitro and express p53 in mouse bearing 4T1 cancer tumors, in vivo

PURPOSE

Increase in the number of cancer related deaths has made the study on developing new drugs and treatments essential. One of the main aims in developing new therapies is to use natural resources which have the ability to induce apoptosis. Pectin is one of these natural compounds, a complex polysaccharide found in apples with anti-cancer properties. The aim of this study was to examine anti-cancer properties of pectic acid both in vitro in 4T1 breast cancer cells and in vivo using an animal model of breast cancer.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

MTT cell proliferation assays, double fluorescence staining (acridine orange/ethidium bromide) and cell cycle analysis were employed to measure apoptosis in vitro. 4T1 cells were implanted into female BALB/c mice for in vivo studies. Then tumor volumes, histological analysis and immunohistochemical staining of P53 and tunnel test were applied to evaluate apoptosis in tumors.

RESULTS

The results of in vitro studies showed that concentration of 0.1% of pectic acid could induce apoptosis, inhibit cell growth (p<0.001) and reduce cell attachment, fragmented chromatin, and membrane blebbing as well as blocking the sub-G1 phase (p<0.001). In addition, in vivo studies showed that pectic acid could inhibit the progression of tumors through over-expression of P53 and increasing the number of apoptotic cells.

CONCLUSION

Our results demonstrated that pectic acid, a natural component of apple, can prevent metastasis in both cancer cell lines and primary tumors. This potential effect is mainly due to its ability to induce apoptosis.

Porphyrin-loaded nanoparticles for cancer theranostics

Porphyrins have been used as pioneering theranostic agents not only for the photodynamic therapy, sonodynamic therapy and radiotherapy of cancer, but also for diagnostic fluorescence imaging, magnetic resonance imaging and photoacoustic imaging. A variety of porphyrins have been developed but very few of them have actually been employed in clinical trials due to their poor selectivity to tumorous tissue and high accumulation rates in the skin. In addition, most porphyrin molecules are hydrophobic and form aggregates in aqueous media. Nevertheless, the use of nanoparticles as porphyrin carriers shows great promise to overcome these shortcomings. Encapsulating or attaching porphyrins to nanoparticles makes them more suitable for tissue delivery because we can create materials with a conveniently specific tissue lifetime, specific targeting, immune tolerance, and hydrophilicity as well as other characteristics through rational design. In addition, various functional components (e.g. for targeting, imaging or therapeutic functions) can be easily introduced into a single nanoparticle platform for cancer theranostics. This review presents the current state of knowledge on porphyrin-loaded nanoparticles for the interwined imaging and therapy of cancer. The future trends and limitations of prophyrin-loaded nanoparticles are also outlined.

Epigallocatechin Gallate Nanodelivery Systems for Cancer Therapy

Cancer is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality all over the world. Conventional treatments, such as chemotherapy, are generally expensive, highly toxic and lack efficiency. Cancer chemoprevention using phytochemicals is emerging as a promising approach for the treatment of early carcinogenic processes. (−)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) is the major bioactive constituent in green tea with numerous health benefits including anti-cancer activity, which has been intensively studied. Besides its potential for chemoprevention, EGCG has also been shown to synergize with common anti-cancer agents, which makes it a suitable adjuvant in chemotherapy. However, limitations in terms of stability and bioavailability have hampered its application in clinical settings. Nanotechnology may have an important role in improving the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics of EGCG. Indeed, several studies have already reported the use of nanoparticles as delivery vehicles of EGCG for cancer therapy. The aim of this article is to discuss the EGCG molecule and its associated health benefits, particularly its anti-cancer activity and provide an overview of the studies that have employed nanotechnology strategies to enhance EGCG’s properties and potentiate its anti-tumoral activity.

Antitumor effect of free rhodium (II) citrate and rhodium (II) citrate-loaded maghemite nanoparticles on mice bearing breast cancer: a systemic toxicity assay

Breast cancer is one of the most prevalent cancer types among women. The use of magnetic fluids for specific delivery of drugs represents an attractive platform for chemotherapy. In our previous studies, it was demonstrated that maghemite nanoparticles coated with rhodium (II) citrate (Magh-Rh2Cit) induced in vitro cytotoxicity and in vivo antitumor activity, followed by intratumoral administration in breast carcinoma cells. In this study, our aim was to follow intravenous treatment to evaluate the systemic antitumor activity and toxicity induced by these formulations in Balb/c mice bearing orthotopic 4T1 breast carcinoma. Female Balb/c mice were evaluated with regard to toxicity of intravenous treatments through analyses of hemogram, serum levels of alanine aminotransferase, iron, and creatinine and liver, kidney, and lung histology. The antitumor activity of rhodium (II) citrate (Rh2Cit), Magh-Rh2Cit, and maghemite nanoparticles coated with citrate (Magh-Cit), used as control, was evaluated by tumor volume reduction, histology, and morphometric analysis. Magh-Rh2Cit and Magh-Cit promoted a significant decrease in tumor area, and no experimental groups presented hematotoxic effects or increased levels of serum ALT and creatinine. This observation was corroborated by the histopathological examination of the liver and kidney of mice. Furthermore, the presence of nanoparticles was verified in lung tissue with no morphological changes, supporting the idea that our nanoformulations did not induce toxicity effects. No studies about the systemic action of rhodium (II) citrate-loaded maghemite nanoparticles have been carried out, making this report a suitable starting point for exploring the therapeutic potential of these compounds in treating breast cancer.

A phase II study of medroxyprogesterone acetate in patients with hormone receptor negative metastatic breast cancer: translational breast cancer research consortium trial 007

Preclinical data suggest that medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) has both anti-metastatic and anti-angiogenic activity in the absence of hormone receptors (HR). This phase II trial assessed the activity of MPA alone or in combination with low-dose chemotherapy in patients with metastatic HR-negative breast cancer. Postmenopausal women with HR-negative disease were eligible if they had not received more than 3 chemotherapy regimens for metastatic disease. All patients were treated with MPA 1,000-1,500 mg/day orally; patients in cohort two also received low-dose oral cyclophosphamide and methotrexate (ldCM, 50 mg/day and 2.5 mg twice daily on Days 1 and 2 each week). Tissue and circulating biomarkers were assessed serially. The primary endpoint was clinical benefit response defined as objective response or stable disease >6 months. Thirty patients were enrolled (14 MPA monotherapy; 16 MPA + ldCM); median age was 55 (35-80); nearly all had visceral involvement. Despite dose escalation in 90 % of patients, only 17 (57 %) patients ever achieved MPA trough concentrations >50 ng/ml. One patient developed grade 4 renal failure in the setting of rapid disease progression and dehydration. There were no objective responses. One patient in each cohort (~7 %) had stable disease for > 6 months. Skin Nm23 expression increased after 4 weeks of MPA + ldCM, but there were no significant changes in TSP-1, PAI-1 antigen, or PAI-1 activity. MPA had limited activity and does not warrant further development in patients with HR-negative advanced breast cancer. Poor bioavailability limited exposure despite dose escalation.

THE APPLICATION OF NANOMATERIALS IN DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT FOR MALIGNANT PRIMARY BRAIN TUMORS

Malignant primary brain tumors have a very high morbidity and mortality. Even though enormous advances have been made in primary brain tumor management, in the case of malignant primary brain tumors, current diagnostic strategies cannot identify exact infiltrating margins, surgery alone cannot achieve total mass resection, and adjuvant therapies cannot improve survivals. Therefore, there is an urgent need to explore novel strategies to diagnose and treat such infiltrating brain tumors. Nanomaterials, particularly zero-dimensional and one-dimensional platforms, can carry various compounds such as contrast agents, anticancer drugs and genes into brain tumor cells specifically. Thus, contrast agent-based nanomaterials can selectively present infiltrating tumor outlines, while anticancer agent-based nanomaterials can specifically kill malignant tumor cells. In addition, dual-targeting nanomaterials, multifunctional nanocarriers, theranostic nanovehicles as well as convection-enhanced delivery technology hold promise to increase drug accumulation in tumor tissues, which could largely improve anticancer efficacy. In this review, we will mainly focus on the application of nanomaterials in preoperative diagnosis, intraoperative diagnosis and adjuvant treatment for malignant primary brain tumors.

Paclitaxel induces apoptosis in breast cancer cells through different calcium--regulating mechanisms depending on external calcium conditions

Previously, we reported that endoplasmic reticulum calcium stores were a direct target for paclitaxel initiation of apoptosis. Furthermore, the actions of paclitaxel attenuated Bcl-2 resistance to apoptosis through endoplasmic reticulum-mediated calcium release. To better understand the calcium-regulated mechanisms of paclitaxel-induced apoptosis in breast cancer cells, we investigated the role of extracellular calcium, specifically; whether influx of extracellular calcium contributed to and/or was necessary for paclitaxel-induced apoptosis. Our results demonstrated that paclitaxel induced extracellular calcium influx. This mobilization of extracellular calcium contributed to subsequent cytosolic calcium elevation differently, depending on dosage. Under normal extracellular calcium conditions, high dose paclitaxel induced apoptosis-promoting calcium influx, which did not occur in calcium-free conditions. In the absence of extracellular calcium an “Enhanced Calcium Efflux” mechanism in which high dose paclitaxel stimulated calcium efflux immediately, leading to dramatic cytosolic calcium decrease, was observed. In the absence of extracellular calcium, high dose paclitaxel’s stimulatory effects on capacitative calcium entry and apoptosis could not be completely restored. Thus, normal extracellular calcium concentrations are critical for high dose paclitaxel-induced apoptosis. In contrast, low dose paclitaxel mirrored controls, indicating that it occurs independent of extracellular calcium. Thus, extracellular calcium conditions only affect efficacy of high dose paclitaxel-induced apoptosis.

Induction of apoptosis through oxidative stress-related pathways in MCF-7, human breast cancer cells, by ethyl acetate extract of Dillenia suffruticosa

Background

Breast cancer is one of the most dreading types of cancer among women. Herbal medicine has becoming a potential source of treatment for breast cancer. Herbal plant Dillenia suffruticosa (Griff) Martelli under the family Dilleniaceae has been traditionally used to treat cancerous growth. In this study, the anticancer effect of ethyl acetate extract of D. suffruticosa (EADs) was examined on human breast adenocarcinoma cell line MCF-7 and the molecular pathway involved was elucidated.

Methods

EADs was obtained from the root of D. suffruticosa by using sequential solvent extraction. Cytotoxicity was determined by using MTT assay, mode of cell death by cell cycle analysis and apoptosis induction by Annexin-FITC/PI assay. Morphology changes in cells were observed under inverted light microscope. Involvement of selected genes in the oxidative stress-mediated signaling pathway was explored using multiplex gene expression analysis.

Results

The treatment of EADs caused cytotoxicity to MCF-7 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner at 24, 48 and 72 hours with IC₅₀ of 76 ± 2.3, 58 ± 0.7 and 39 ± 3.6 μg/mL, respectively. The IC₅₀ of tamoxifen-treated MCF-7 cells was 8 ± 0.5 μg/mL. Induction of apoptosis by EADs was dose- and time- dependent. EADs induced non-phase specific cell cycle arrest at different concentration and time point. The multiplex mRNA expression study indicated that EADs-induced apoptosis was accompanied by upregulation of the expression of SOD1, SOD2, NF-κB, p53, p38 MAPK, and catalase, but downregulation of Akt1.

Conclusion

It is suggested that EADs induced apoptosis in MCF-7 cells by modulating numerous genes which are involved in oxidative stress pathway. Therefore, EADs has the potential to act as an effective intervention against breast cancer cells.

Glycan elongation beyond the mucin associated Tn antigen protects tumor cells from immune-mediated killing

Membrane bound mucins are up-regulated and aberrantly glycosylated during malignant transformation in many cancer cells. This results in a negatively charged glycoprotein coat which may protect cancer cells from immune surveillance. However, only limited data have so far demonstrated the critical steps in glycan elongation that make aberrantly glycosylated mucins affect the interaction between cancer cells and cytotoxic effector cells of the immune system. Tn (GalNAc-Ser/Thr), STn (NeuAcα2-6GalNAc-Ser/Thr), T (Galβ1–3GalNAc-Ser/Thr), and ST (NeuAcα2-6Galβ1–3GalNAc-Ser/Thr) antigens are recognized as cancer associated truncated glycans, and are expressed in many adenocarcinomas, e.g. breast- and pancreatic cancer cells. To investigate the role of the cancer associated glycan truncations in immune-mediated killing we created glyco-engineered breast- and pancreatic cancer cells expressing only the shortest possible mucin-like glycans (Tn and STn). Glyco-engineering was performed by zinc finger nuclease (ZFN) knockout (KO) of the Core 1 enzyme chaperone COSMC, thereby preventing glycan elongation beyond the initial GalNAc residue in O-linked glycans. We find that COSMC KO in the breast and pancreatic cancer cell lines T47D and Capan-1 increases sensitivity to both NK cell mediated antibody-dependent cellular-cytotoxicity (ADCC) and cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL)-mediated killing. In addition, we investigated the association between total cell surface expression of MUC1/MUC16 and NK or CTL mediated killing, and observed an inverse correlation between MUC16/MUC1 expression and the sensitivity to ADCC and CTL-mediated killing. Together, these data suggest that up-regulation of membrane bound mucins protects cells from immune mediated killing, and that particular glycosylation steps, as demonstrated for glycan elongation beyond Tn and STn, can be important for fine tuning of the immune escape mechanisms in cancer cells.

Clinicopathologic characteristics and prognostic factors in patients with operable HER-2 overexpressing breast cancer

OBJECTIVE

To study the relationship between clinical pathologic characteristics, treatment modalities and prognostic factors in HER-2 (Human Epidermal growth factor Receptor-2) overexpressed breast carcinoma.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Major clinico-pathological factors including therapeutic modalities and survival status of 371 breast cancer patients with HER2 over-expression, teated at Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital from March of 2002 to December of 2010 were retrospectively studied, with special attention focused on survival-related factors.

RESULTS

The median age of the total 371 patients in this study was 48 years at time of diagnosis, among which, the leading pathological type was infiltrating ductal carcinoma (92.5%); 62.8% presented with a primary tomor larger than 2 cm in diameter at diagnosis, 51.0% had axillary lymph node (ALN) metastases; ER (Estrogen receptor) /PR (Progesterone receptor) double negative occured in 52.8% of cases, and PCNA (proliferation cell nuclear antigen) (+ + +) was found in 55.1%. HER-2 overexpressed patients were usually in advanced stage when the diagnosis was made (72.8% at stages IIA~IIIC). The prognosis and survival were assessed in 259 patients with complete follow-up data. 5-year DFS (disease-free survival) and OS (overall survival) rate was 68.0% and 78.0% respectively. Univariate analysis revealed that age, tumor size, ALN metastases, LVSI (lymph-vascular space involvement), PCNA status, hormonal therapy, chemotherapy cycles, and HER-2 overexpression, correlated closely with the prognosis. ALN metastases, LVSI, PCNA status and chemotherapy cycles were independent predictors of survival.

CONCLUSIONS

HER-2 overexpressed breast cancer has special clinical and pathological characteristics, with advanced clinical stages and high rate of ER/PR double negative. Lymph node metastases, LVSI, PCNA and chemotherapy cycles are independent predictors of prognosis.

Synthesis, characterization and in vitro studies of doxorubicin-loaded magnetic nanoparticles grafted to smart copolymers on A549 lung cancer cell line

Background

The aim of present study was to develop the novel methods for chemical and physical modification of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) with polymers via covalent bonding entrapment. These modified SPIONs were used for encapsulation of anticancer drug doxorubicin.

Method

At first approach silane–grafted magnetic nanoparticles was prepared and used as a template for polymerization of the N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAAm) and methacrylic acid (MAA) via radical polymerization. This temperature/pH-sensitive copolymer was used for preparation of DOX–loaded magnetic nanocomposites. At second approach Vinyltriethoxysilane-grafted magnetic nanoparticles were used as a template to polymerize PNIPAAm-MAA in 1, 4 dioxan and methylene-bis-acrylamide (BIS) was used as a cross-linking agent. Chemical composition and magnetic properties of Dox–loaded magnetic hydrogel nanocomposites were analyzed by FT-IR, XRD, and VSM.

Results

The results demonstrate the feasibility of drug encapsulation of the magnetic nanoparticles with NIPAAm–MAA copolymer via covalent bonding. The key factors for the successful prepardtion of magnetic nanocomposites were the structure of copolymer (linear or cross-linked), concentration of copolymer and concentration of drug. The influence of pH and temperature on the release profile of doxorubicin was examined. The in vitro cytotoxicity test (MTT assay) of both magnetic DOx–loaded nanoparticles was examined. The in vitro tests showed that these systems are no toxicity and are biocompatible.

Conclusion

IC50 of DOx–loaded Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles on A549 lung cancer cell line showed that systems could be useful in treatment of lung cancer.

Activation of abl family kinases in solid tumors

Although c-Abl and Arg non-receptor tyrosine kinases are well known for driving leukemia development, their role in solid tumors has not been appreciated until recently. Accumulating evidence now indicates that c-Abl and/or Arg are activated in some solid tumor cell lines via unique mechanisms that do not involve gene mutation/translocation, and c-Abl/Arg activation promotes matrix degradation, invasion, proliferation, tumorigenesis, and/or metastasis, depending on the tumor type. However, some data suggest that c-Abl also may suppress invasion, proliferation, and tumorigenesis in certain cell contexts. Thus, c-Abl/Arg may serve as molecular switches that suppress proliferation and invasion in response to some stimuli (e.g., ephrins) or when inactive/regulated, or as promote invasion and proliferation in response to other signals (e.g., activated growth factor receptors, loss of inhibitor expression), which induce sustained activation. Clearly, more data are required to determine the extent and prevalence of c-Abl/Arg activation in primary tumors and during progression, and additional animal studies are needed to substantiate in vitro findings. Furthermore, c-Abl/Arg inhibitors have been used in numerous solid tumor clinical trials; however, none of these trials were restricted to patients whose tumors expressed highly activated c-Abl/Arg (targeted trial). Targeted trials are critical for determining whether c-Abl/Arg inhibitors can be effective treatment options for patients whose tumors are driven by c-Abl/Arg.

Polymeric nanoparticles conjugate a novel heptapeptide as an epidermal growth factor receptor-active targeting ligand for doxorubicin

Background

This study was performed to develop a functional poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide)- poly(ethylene glycol) (PLGA-PEG)-bearing amino-active end group for peptide conjugation.

Methods and results

PLGA was preactivated following by copolymerization with PEG diamine. The resulting amphiphilic PLGA-PEG copolymer bearing 97.0% of amino end groups had a critical micelle concentration of 3.0 × 10⁻⁸ mol/L, and the half-effective inhibition concentration (IC₅₀) of the prepared PLGA-PEG nanoparticles was >100 mg/mL, which was much higher than that of PLGA nanoparticles (1.02 ± 0.37 mg/mL). The amphiphilic properties of PLGA-PEG spontaneously formed a core-shell conformation in the aqueous environment, and this special feature provided the amino group on the PEG chain scattered on the surface of PLGA-PEG nanoparticles for efficient peptide conjugation. The peptide-conjugated PLGA-PEG nanoparticles showed three-fold higher uptake than peptide-free PLGA-PEG nanoparticles in a SKOV3 cell line with high expression of epidermal growth factor receptor. Both peptide-conjugated and peptide-free PLGA-PEG nanoparticles were used as nanocarriers for delivery of doxorubicin. Although the rate of release of doxorubicin from both nanoparticles was similar, drug release at pH 4.0 (500 U lipase) was faster than at pH 7.4. The IC₅₀ of doxorubicin-loaded peptide-conjugated PLGA-PEG nanoparticles in SKOV3 cells (0.05 ± 0.03 μg/mL) was much lower (by 62.4-fold) than that of peptide-free PLGA-PEG nanoparticles (3.12 ± 1.44 μg/mL).

Conclusion

This in vivo biodistribution study in SKOV3 tumor-bearing mice was further promising in that accumulation of doxorubicin in tumor tissue was in the order of peptide-conjugated PLGA-PEG nanoparticles > peptide-free PLGA-PEG nanoparticles > doxorubicin solution.

PREPARATION OF GELATIN NANOPARTICLES WITH EGFR SELECTION ABILITY VIA BIOTINYLATED-EGF CONJUGATION FOR LUNG CANCER TARGETING

Lung cancer is the most malignant cancer today, and specific drug delivery has been developed for superior outcome. In this study, gelatin nanoparticles (GPs) were firstly employed as native carriers. Second, NeutrAvidinFITC was then grafted on the particle surface (GP-Av); finally much more amount of biotinylated EGF were able to be conjugated with NeutrAvidinFITC forming ligand- binding nanoparticles (GP-Av-bEGF) to enhance the targeting efficiency. These nanoparticles were applied as EGFR-seeking agents to detect lung cancer cells.

Results of particle characterization show that the modification process had no influence on size (230 nm). Round and smooth nanoparticles were observed by AFM. The surface property of nanoparticles was characterized by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and flowcytometry analysis as well as by examining the interaction of the modified EGF on particle surface with the ability to recognize EGFR.

The binding ability of GPs with or without EGF modification is different. SPR assay showed that EGF-conjugated particles (GP-Av-bEGF) have stronger and faster bonding signal than the unmodified one (GP-Av). Free EGF competition results from SPR and A549 cell (lung adenocarcinoma cells) culture also confirmed the EGF receptormediated endocytosis mechanism for nanoparticles with EGF-modified binding. The in vitro targeting ability was confirmed by the uptake rate of different cells via flow cytometry assay. GP-Av-bEGF resulted in higher entrance efficiency on A549 than on normal lung cells (HFL1) and U2-OS (osteosarcoma cells) due to A549 possessing more amounts of EGFR. The targeting ability of GP-Av-bEGF nanoparticles with specific EGFR tracing ability was proved, which holds promise for further anticancer drug applications.

Preparation and in vitro evaluation of doxorubicin-loaded Fe₃O₄ magnetic nanoparticles modified with biocompatible copolymers

BACKGROUND

Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles are attractive materials that have been widely used in medicine for drug delivery, diagnostic imaging, and therapeutic applications. In our study, superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles and the anticancer drug, doxorubicin hydrochloride, were encapsulated into poly (D, L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) poly (ethylene glycol) (PLGA-PEG) nanoparticles for local treatment. The magnetic properties conferred by superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles could help to maintain the nanoparticles in the joint with an external magnet.

METHODS

A series of PLGA:PEG triblock copolymers were synthesized by ring-opening polymerization of D, L-lactide and glycolide with different molecular weights of polyethylene glycol (PEG(2000), PEG(3000), and PEG(4000)) as an initiator. The bulk properties of these copolymers were characterized using (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, gel permeation chromatography, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and differential scanning calorimetry. In addition, the resulting particles were characterized by x-ray powder diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and vibrating sample magnetometry.

RESULTS

The doxorubicin encapsulation amount was reduced for PLGA:PEG(2000) and PLGA:PEG(3000) triblock copolymers, but increased to a great extent for PLGA:PEG(4000) triblock copolymer. This is due to the increased water uptake capacity of the blended triblock copolymer, which encapsulated more doxorubicin molecules into a swollen copolymer matrix. The drug encapsulation efficiency achieved for Fe(3)O(4) magnetic nanoparticles modified with PLGA:PEG(2000), PLGA:PEG(3000), and PLGA:PEG(4000) copolymers was 69.5%, 73%, and 78%, respectively, and the release kinetics were controlled. The in vitro cytotoxicity test showed that the Fe(3)O(4)-PLGA:PEG(4000) magnetic nanoparticles had no cytotoxicity and were biocompatible.

CONCLUSION

There is potential for use of these nanoparticles for biomedical application. Future work includes in vivo investigation of the targeting capability and effectiveness of these nanoparticles in the treatment of lung cancer.

The importance of cellular internalization of antibody-targeted carbon nanotubes in the photothermal ablation of breast cancer cells

Single-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) convert absorbed near infrared (NIR) light into heat. The use of CNTs in the NIR-mediated photothermal ablation of tumor cells is attractive because the penetration of NIR light through normal tissues is optimal and the side effects are minimal. Targeted thermal ablation with minimal collateral damage can be achieved by using CNTs attached to tumor-specific monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). However, the role that the cellular internalization of CNTs plays in the subsequent sensitivity of the target cells to NIR-mediated photothermal ablation remains undefined. To address this issue, we used CNTs covalently coupled to an anti-Her2 or a control MAb and tested their ability to bind, internalize, and photothermally ablate Her2(+) but not Her2(-) breast cancer cell lines. Using flow cytometry, immunofluorescence, and confocal Raman microscopy, we observed the gradual time-dependent receptor-mediated endocytosis of anti-Her2-CNTs whereas a control MAb-CNT conjugate did not bind to the cells. Most importantly, the Her2(+) cells that internalized the MAb-CNTs were more sensitive to NIR-mediated photothermal damage than cells that could bind to, but not internalize the MAb-CNTs. These results suggest that both the targeting and internalization of MAb-CNTs might result in the most effective thermal ablation of tumor cells following their exposure to NIR light.

Synthesis and antitumor efficacy of daunorubicin-loaded magnetic nanoparticles

Background

A promising approach to optimize the disposition of daunorubicin-loaded magnetic nanoparticles (DNR-MNPs) was developed to minimize serious side effects of systematic chemotherapy for cancer.

Methods

The physical properties of DNR-MNPs were investigated and their effect on leukemia cells in vitro was evaluated by a standard WST-1 cell proliferation assay. Furthermore, cell apoptosis and intracellular accumulation of DNR were determined by FACSCalibur flow cytometry.

Results

Our results showed that the majority of MNPs were spherical and their sizes were from 10 to 20 nm. The average hydrodynamic diameter of DNR-MNPs in water was 94 nm. The in vitro release data showed that the DNR-MNPs have excellent sustained release property. Proliferation of K562 cells was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner by DNR in solution (DNR-Sol) or by DNR-MNPs. The IC₅₀ for DNR-MNPs was slightly higher than that for DNR-Sol. DNR-MNPs also induced less apoptosis in K562 cells than did DNR-Sol. Detection of fluorescence intensity of intracellular DNR demonstrated that DNR-MNPs could be taken up by K562 cells and persistently released DNR in cells.

Conclusion

Our study suggests that optimized DNR-MNPs formulation possesses sustained drug-release and favorable antitumor properties, which may be used as a conventional dosage form for antitumor therapy.

Preparation of new 5-fluorouracil-loaded zein nanoparticles for liver targeting

This study proposes a new zein nanoparticle (ZP) encapsulated 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) that target liver through intravenous delivery. The ZPs were prepared by phase separation process and optimized using uniform experimental design. The physical properties, in vitro drug release and stability of optimal drug-loaded ZPs were studied. The biodistribution and the target efficiency of the particles were investigated in a mouse model. The highest drug loading was obtained using zein: 5-FU, 3:1 (v/v); zein concentration, 12.5mg/ml, pH 9.18, mixing time, 3h and ethanol concentration, 40%. The encapsulation efficiency and the drug loading were 60.7 ± 1.74 and 9.17 ± 0.11 respectively. The size of ZPs and zeta potential were 114.9 ± 59.4 nm and -45 ± 0.3 mV respectively. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) demonstrated that the drug was encapsulated within the ZPs. A sustained release profile of 5-FU was observed from ZPs. The more stable storage condition of ZPs was at a temperature of 4 °C. In vivo, ZPs was mostly accumulated in liver following intravenous injection, and the targeting efficiency increased 31.33%. The relative uptake rate of liver was 2.79. Also, nano-sized ZPs were beneficial for prolonged blood residence (7.2-fold increase). These demonstrated that the drug-loaded ZPs could be efficiently targeted at the liver by intravenous delivery.

Synthesis and in vitro release of adriamycin from star-shaped poly(lactide-co-glycolide) nano- and microparticles

The star-shaped poly(lactide-co-glycolide (PLGA)-beta-cyclodextrin (PLGA-beta-CD) copolymer was synthesized by reacting L-lactide, glycolide, and beta-cyclodextrin in the presence of stannous octoate as a catalyst. The structure of PLGA-beta-CD copolymer was confirmed with (1)H-NMR, (13)C-NMR, and FT-IR spectra. Adriamycin (ADR), which is an antitumor antibiotic, was encapsulated within micro- and nanoparticles made of PLGA-beta-CD with a modified double emulsion method. Relatively low amount of beta-CD and catalyst were used in order to obtain high molecular weight polymers. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was used to determine the thermal properties of star-shaped copolymers. The reduction of interactions between the star-shaped polyester molecules is due to their branched structure lowered T(g) and T(m) compared to linear PLGA copolymers. Effects of the experimental parameters, such as copolymer composition, ADR concentration, copolymer concentration, and poly(vinyl alcohol) concentration, on particular size and encapsulation efficiency were investigated. An increase in the internal aqueous phase volume led to a decrease in particles average size. A decrease in the polymer concentration resulted in increasing the particle average size from 135.5 to 325.6 nm. The high entrapment efficiency (EE) (about 65%) was obtained for 220 microm particles. All of the release profiles indicated a close relationship between each formulation variable and the amount of ADR released.

Fatty acid-binding protein 5 and PPARbeta/delta are critical mediators of epidermal growth factor receptor-induced carcinoma cell growth

Epidermal growth factors and their receptors (EGFRs) promote breast cancer cell proliferation and can drive tumorigenesis. However, the molecular mechanisms that mediate these effects are incompletely understood. We previously showed that mammary tumor development in the mouse model of breast cancer MMTV-neu, a model characterized by amplification of the EGFR ErbB2 in mammary tissue, correlates with a marked up-regulation of fatty acid-binding protein 5 (FABP5). FABP5 functions to deliver ligands to and enhance the transcriptional activity of the nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor beta/delta (PPARbeta/delta), a receptor whose target genes include genes involved in cell growth and survival. We show here that in MCF-7 mammary carcinoma cells, EGFR signaling directly up-regulates the expression of FABP5. The data demonstrate that treatment of these cells with the EGFR ligand heregulin-beta1 signals through the ERK and the phophatidylinositol-3-kinase cascades, resulting in activation of the transcription factor NF-kappaB. In turn, NF-kappaB induces the expression of FABP5 through two cognate response elements in the promoter of this gene. The observations further demonstrate that FABP5 and PPARbeta/delta are critical mediators of the ability of EGFR to enhance cell proliferation, indicating that this transcriptional pathway plays a key role in EGFR-induced tumorigenesis. Additional observations indicate that the expression of FABP5 is down-regulated by the Krüppel-like factor KLF2, suggesting a tumor suppressor activity for this factor.