1
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Lazic J, Filipovic V, Pantelic L, Milovanovic J, Vojnovic S, Nikodinovic-Runic J. Late-stage diversification of bacterial natural products through biocatalysis. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2024; 12:1351583. [PMID: 38807651 PMCID: PMC11130421 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2024.1351583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Bacterial natural products (BNPs) are very important sources of leads for drug development and chemical novelty. The possibility to perform late-stage diversification of BNPs using biocatalysis is an attractive alternative route other than total chemical synthesis or metal complexation reactions. Although biocatalysis is gaining popularity as a green chemistry methodology, a vast majority of orphan sequenced genomic data related to metabolic pathways for BNP biosynthesis and its tailoring enzymes are underexplored. In this review, we report a systematic overview of biotransformations of 21 molecules, which include derivatization by halogenation, esterification, reduction, oxidation, alkylation and nitration reactions, as well as degradation products as their sub-derivatives. These BNPs were grouped based on their biological activities into antibacterial (5), antifungal (5), anticancer (5), immunosuppressive (2) and quorum sensing modulating (4) compounds. This study summarized 73 derivatives and 16 degradation sub-derivatives originating from 12 BNPs. The highest number of biocatalytic reactions was observed for drugs that are already in clinical use: 28 reactions for the antibacterial drug vancomycin, followed by 18 reactions reported for the immunosuppressive drug rapamycin. The most common biocatalysts include oxidoreductases, transferases, lipases, isomerases and haloperoxidases. This review highlights biocatalytic routes for the late-stage diversification reactions of BNPs, which potentially help to recognize the structural optimizations of bioactive scaffolds for the generation of new biomolecules, eventually leading to drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jelena Lazic
- Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
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2
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Two-drug trick to target the brain blocks toxicity in the body. Nature 2022; 609:681-683. [DOI: 10.1038/d41586-022-02892-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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3
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Zhang Z, Fan Q, Luo X, Lou K, Weiss WA, Shokat KM. Brain-restricted mTOR inhibition with binary pharmacology. Nature 2022; 609:822-828. [PMID: 36104566 PMCID: PMC9492542 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-05213-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
On-target-off-tissue drug engagement is an important source of adverse effects that constrains the therapeutic window of drug candidates1,2. In diseases of the central nervous system, drugs with brain-restricted pharmacology are highly desirable. Here we report a strategy to achieve inhibition of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) while sparing mTOR activity elsewhere through the use of the brain-permeable mTOR inhibitor RapaLink-1 and the brain-impermeable FKBP12 ligand RapaBlock. We show that this drug combination mitigates the systemic effects of mTOR inhibitors but retains the efficacy of RapaLink-1 in glioblastoma xenografts. We further present a general method to design cell-permeable, FKBP12-dependent kinase inhibitors from known drug scaffolds. These inhibitors are sensitive to deactivation by RapaBlock, enabling the brain-restricted inhibition of their respective kinase targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyang Zhang
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Qiwen Fan
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Xujun Luo
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Kevin Lou
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - William A Weiss
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Kevan M Shokat
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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4
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Larraufie MH, Gao X, Xia X, Devine PJ, Kallen J, Liu D, Michaud G, Harsch A, Savage N, Ding J, Tan K, Mihalic M, Roggo S, Canham SM, Bushell SM, Krastel P, Gao J, Izaac A, Altinoglu E, Lustenberger P, Salcius M, Harbinski F, Williams ET, Zeng L, Loureiro J, Cong F, Fryer CJ, Klickstein L, Tallarico JA, Jain RK, Rothman DM, Wang S. Phenotypic screen identifies calcineurin-sparing FK506 analogs as BMP potentiators for treatment of acute kidney injury. Cell Chem Biol 2021; 28:1271-1282.e12. [PMID: 33894161 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2021.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a life-threatening disease with no known curative or preventive therapies. Data from multiple animal models and human studies have linked dysregulation of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling to AKI. Small molecules that potentiate endogenous BMP signaling should have a beneficial effect in AKI. We performed a high-throughput phenotypic screen and identified a series of FK506 analogs that act as potent BMP potentiators by sequestering FKBP12 from BMP type I receptors. We further showed that calcineurin inhibition was not required for this activity. We identified a calcineurin-sparing FK506 analog oxtFK through late-stage functionalization and structure-guided design. OxtFK demonstrated an improved safety profile in vivo relative to FK506. OxtFK stimulated BMP signaling in vitro and in vivo and protected the kidneys in an AKI mouse model, making it a promising candidate for future development as a first-in-class therapeutic for diseases with dysregulated BMP signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Xiaolin Gao
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Xiaobo Xia
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | - Joerg Kallen
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Dong Liu
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Gregory Michaud
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Andreas Harsch
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Nik Savage
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Jian Ding
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Kian Tan
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Manuel Mihalic
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Silvio Roggo
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Simon M Bushell
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Philipp Krastel
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jinhai Gao
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Aude Izaac
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Erhan Altinoglu
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | - Michael Salcius
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Fred Harbinski
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Eric T Williams
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Liling Zeng
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Joseph Loureiro
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Feng Cong
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Christy J Fryer
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | | | - Rishi K Jain
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | - Shaowen Wang
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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5
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Wang Y, Peiffer BJ, Su Q, Liu JO. One-step Heck Reaction Generates Nonimmunosuppressive FK506 Analogs for Pharmacological BMP Activation. ACS Med Chem Lett 2019; 10:1279-1283. [PMID: 31531197 PMCID: PMC6746090 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.9b00144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
FKBP12 ligands such as FK506 have been shown to activate the BMP signaling pathway and facilitate tissue regeneration. However, the immunosuppressive activity of FK506 limits its clinical application. Using Heck reaction, we generated nonimmunosuppressive analogs of FK506 by fusing heterocycles to the calcineurin (CN) binding domain of FK506. Structure-activity relationships provided novel mechanistic insights into the FK506-CN interaction that can be exploited for rational design of future analogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuefan Wang
- Department
of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and the SJ Yan and HJ Mao Laboratory
of Chemical Biology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
| | - Brandon J. Peiffer
- Department
of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and the SJ Yan and HJ Mao Laboratory
of Chemical Biology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
| | - Qi Su
- Department
of Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 North Charles Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, United States
| | - Jun O. Liu
- Department
of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and the SJ Yan and HJ Mao Laboratory
of Chemical Biology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
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6
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Peiffer BJ, Qi L, Ahmadi AR, Wang Y, Guo Z, Peng H, Sun Z, Liu JO. Activation of BMP Signaling by FKBP12 Ligands Synergizes with Inhibition of CXCR4 to Accelerate Wound Healing. Cell Chem Biol 2019; 26:652-661.e4. [PMID: 30827938 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2019.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Revised: 12/04/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The combination of AMD3100 and low-dose FK506 has been shown to accelerate wound healing in vivo. Although AMD3100 is known to work by releasing hematopoietic stem cells into circulation, the mechanism of FK506 in this setting has remained unknown. In this study, we investigated the activities of FK506 in human cells and a diabetic-rat wound model using a non-immunosuppressive FK506 analog named FKVP. While FKVP was incapable of inhibiting calcineurin, wound-healing enhancement with AMD3100 was unaffected. Further study showed that both FK506 and FKVP activate BMP signaling in multiple cell types through FKBP12 antagonism. Furthermore, selective inhibition of BMP signaling abolished stem cell recruitment and wound-healing enhancement by combination treatment. These results shed new light on the mechanism of action of FK506 in acceleration of wound healing, and raise the possibility that less toxic FKBP ligands such as FKVP can replace FK506 for the treatment of chronic wounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon J Peiffer
- Department of Pharmacology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; The SJ Yan and HJ Mao Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Le Qi
- Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Ali R Ahmadi
- Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Yuefan Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; The SJ Yan and HJ Mao Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Zufeng Guo
- Department of Pharmacology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; The SJ Yan and HJ Mao Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Hanjing Peng
- Department of Pharmacology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; The SJ Yan and HJ Mao Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Zhaoli Sun
- Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
| | - Jun O Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; The SJ Yan and HJ Mao Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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7
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Kolos JM, Voll AM, Bauder M, Hausch F. FKBP Ligands-Where We Are and Where to Go? Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:1425. [PMID: 30568592 PMCID: PMC6290070 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.01425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, many members of the FK506-binding protein (FKBP) family were increasingly linked to various diseases. The binding domain of FKBPs differs only in a few amino acid residues, but their biological roles are versatile. High-affinity ligands with selectivity between close homologs are scarce. This review will give an overview of the most prominent ligands developed for FKBPs and highlight a perspective for future developments. More precisely, human FKBPs and correlated diseases will be discussed as well as microbial FKBPs in the context of anti-bacterial and anti-fungal therapeutics. The last section gives insights into high-affinity ligands as chemical tools and dimerizers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Felix Hausch
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Darmstadt University of Technology, Darmstadt, Germany
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8
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Zeng G, Wang Y, Bruchez MP, Liang FS. Self-Reporting Chemically Induced Protein Proximity System Based on a Malachite Green Derivative and the L5** Fluorogen Activating Protein. Bioconjug Chem 2018; 29:3010-3015. [PMID: 30016083 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.8b00415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A unique chemically induced proximity method is engineered based on mutant antibody VL domain using a fluorogenic malachite green derivative as the inducer, which gives fluorescent signals upon VL domain dimerization while simultaneously inducing downstream biological effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guihua Zeng
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology , University of New Mexico , 300 Terrace Street NE , Albuquerque , New Mexico 87131 , United States
| | - Yi Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Biological Sciences, and Molecular Biosensor and Imaging Center , Carnegie Mellon University , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15213 , United States
| | - Marcel P Bruchez
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Biological Sciences, and Molecular Biosensor and Imaging Center , Carnegie Mellon University , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15213 , United States
| | - Fu-Sen Liang
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology , University of New Mexico , 300 Terrace Street NE , Albuquerque , New Mexico 87131 , United States
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9
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Zhang Y, Larraufie MH, Musavi L, Akkiraju H, Brown LM, Stockwell BR. Design of Small Molecules That Compete with Nucleotide Binding to an Engineered Oncogenic KRAS Allele. Biochemistry 2018; 57:1380-1389. [PMID: 29313669 PMCID: PMC5960803 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.7b01113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
RAS mutations are found in 30% of all human cancers, with KRAS the most frequently mutated among the three RAS isoforms (KRAS, NRAS, and HRAS). However, directly targeting oncogenic KRAS with small molecules in the nucleotide-binding site has been difficult because of the high affinity of KRAS for GDP and GTP. We designed an engineered allele of KRAS and a covalent inhibitor that competes for GTP and GDP. This ligand-receptor combination demonstrates that the high affinity of GTP and GDP for RAS proteins can be overcome with a covalent inhibitor and a suitably engineered binding site. The covalent inhibitor irreversibly modifies the protein at the engineered nucleotide-binding site and is able to compete with GDP and GTP. This provides a new tool for studying KRAS function and suggests strategies for targeting the nucleotide-binding site of oncogenic RAS proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Hemanth Akkiraju
- Quantitative Proteomics and Metabolomics Center, Columbia University , New York, New York 10027, United States
| | - Lewis M Brown
- Quantitative Proteomics and Metabolomics Center, Columbia University , New York, New York 10027, United States
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10
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Drug Modulators of B Cell Signaling Pathways and Epstein-Barr Virus Lytic Activation. J Virol 2017; 91:JVI.00747-17. [PMID: 28566383 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00747-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous human gammaherpesvirus that establishes a latency reservoir in B cells. In this work, we show that ibrutinib, idelalisib, and dasatinib, drugs that block B cell receptor (BCR) signaling and are used in the treatment of hematologic malignancies, block BCR-mediated lytic induction at clinically relevant doses. We confirm that the immunosuppressive drugs cyclosporine and tacrolimus also inhibit BCR-mediated lytic induction but find that rapamycin does not inhibit BCR-mediated lytic induction. Further investigation shows that mammalian target of rapamycin complex 2 (mTORC2) contributes to BCR-mediated lytic induction and that FK506-binding protein 12 (FKBP12) binding alone is not adequate to block activation. Finally, we show that BCR signaling can activate EBV lytic induction in freshly isolated B cells from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and that activation can be inhibited by ibrutinib or idelalisib.IMPORTANCE EBV establishes viral latency in B cells. Activation of the B cell receptor pathway activates lytic viral expression in cell lines. Here we show that drugs that inhibit important kinases in the BCR signaling pathway inhibit activation of lytic viral expression but do not inhibit several other lytic activation pathways. Immunosuppressant drugs such as cyclosporine and tacrolimus but not rapamycin also inhibit BCR-mediated EBV activation. Finally, we show that BCR activation of lytic infection occurs not only in tumor cell lines but also in freshly isolated B cells from patients and that this activation can be blocked by BCR inhibitors.
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11
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De Clercq DJH, Tavernier J, Lievens S, Van Calenbergh S. Chemical Dimerizers in Three-Hybrid Systems for Small Molecule-Target Protein Profiling. ACS Chem Biol 2016; 11:2075-90. [PMID: 27267544 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.5b00811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The identification of the molecular targets and mechanisms underpinning the beneficial or detrimental effects of small-molecule leads and drugs constitutes a crucial aspect of current drug discovery. Over the last two decades, three-hybrid (3H) systems have progressively taken an important position in the armamentarium of small molecule-target protein profiling technologies. Yet, a prerequisite for successful 3H analysis is the availability of appropriate chemical inducers of dimerization. Herein, we present a comprehensive and critical overview of the chemical dimerizers specifically applied in both yeast and mammalian three-hybrid systems for small molecule-target protein profiling within the broader scope of target deconvolution and drug discovery. Furthermore, examples and alternative suggestions for typical components of chemical dimerizers for 3H systems are discussed. As illustrated, more tools have become available that increase the sensitivity and efficiency of 3H-based screening platforms. Hence, it is anticipated that the great potential of 3H systems will further materialize in important contributions to drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dries J. H. De Clercq
- Laboratory
for Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jan Tavernier
- Department
of Medical Protein Research, Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Department
of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sam Lievens
- Department
of Medical Protein Research, Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Department
of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Serge Van Calenbergh
- Laboratory
for Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
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12
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Dunyak BM, Nakamura RL, Frankel AD, Gestwicki JE. Selective Targeting of Cells via Bispecific Molecules That Exploit Coexpression of Two Intracellular Proteins. ACS Chem Biol 2015; 10:2441-7. [PMID: 26322864 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.5b00426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In drug discovery, small molecules must often discriminate between healthy and diseased cells. This feat is usually accomplished by binding to a protein that is preferentially expressed in the target cell or on its surface. However, in many cases, the expression of an individual protein may not generate sufficient cyto-selectivity. Here, we demonstrate that bispecific molecules can better discriminate between similar cell types by exploiting their simultaneous affinity for two proteins. Inspired by the natural product FK506, we designed molecules that have affinity for both FKBP12 and HIV protease. Using cell-based reporters and live virus assays, we observed that these compounds preferentially accumulated in cells that express both targets, mimicking an infected lymphocyte. Treatment with FKBP12 inhibitors reversed this partitioning, while overexpression of FKBP12 protein further promoted it. The partitioning into the target cell type could be tuned by controlling the properties of the linker and the affinities for the two proteins. These results show that bispecific molecules create significantly better potential for cyto-selectivity, which might be especially important in the development of safe and effective antivirals and anticancer compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robert L. Nakamura
- Advanced Genetic Systems, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
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13
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Feng S, Laketa V, Stein F, Rutkowska A, MacNamara A, Depner S, Klingmüller U, Saez-Rodriguez J, Schultz C. A rapidly reversible chemical dimerizer system to study lipid signaling in living cells. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014; 53:6720-3. [PMID: 24841150 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201402294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Chemical dimerizers are powerful tools for non-invasive manipulation of enzyme activities in intact cells. Here we introduce the first rapidly reversible small-molecule-based dimerization system and demonstrate a sufficiently fast switch-off to determine kinetics of lipid metabolizing enzymes in living cells. We applied this new method to induce and stop phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) activity, allowing us to quantitatively measure the turnover of phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate (PIP3) and its downstream effectors by confocal fluorescence microscopy as well as standard biochemical methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suihan Feng
- Cell Biology & Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Meyerhofstrasse 1, 69117 Heidelberg (Germany)
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14
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Feng S, Laketa V, Stein F, Rutkowska A, MacNamara A, Depner S, Klingmüller U, Saez-Rodriguez J, Schultz C. A Rapidly Reversible Chemical Dimerizer System to Study Lipid Signaling in Living Cells. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201402294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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15
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Guo ZF, Zhang R, Liang FS. Facile functionalization of FK506 for biological studies by the thiol–ene ‘click’ reaction. RSC Adv 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c3ra47867j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
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16
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Abstract
Chemically induced dimerization is an important tool in chemical biology for the analysis of protein function in cells. Here we report the use of the natural product fusicoccin (FC) to induce dimerization of 14-3-3-fused target proteins with proteins tagged to the C terminus (CT) of the H(+)-ATPase PMA2. To prevent nonproductive or detrimental interactions of the 14-3-3 proteins and CT fusions with endogenous cell proteins, their interaction surface was engineered to facilitate FC-induced dimerization exclusively between the introduced protein constructs. Live-cell imaging documented the reversible FC-induced translocation of 14-3-3 and CT to different cell compartments depending on localization sequences fused to their dimerization partner protein. The functionality of this system was demonstrated by the FC-induced importation of the NF-κB-CT into the nucleus. In HeLa cells, FC-mediated dimerization of the NF-κB-CT with a constitutively nuclear-localized 14-3-3 protein led to an NF-κB-specific cellular response by inducing IL-8 secretion.
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17
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Bulusu MARC, Baumann K, Stuetz A. Chemistry of the immunomodulatory macrolide ascomycin and related analogues. PROGRESS IN THE CHEMISTRY OF ORGANIC NATURAL PRODUCTS 2011; 94:59-126. [PMID: 21833838 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7091-0748-5_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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18
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Pokharel S, Jayalath P, Maydanovych O, Goodman RA, Wang SC, Tantillo DJ, Beal PA. Matching active site and substrate structures for an RNA editing reaction. J Am Chem Soc 2009; 131:11882-91. [PMID: 19642681 DOI: 10.1021/ja9034076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The RNA-editing adenosine deaminases (ADARs) catalyze deamination of adenosine to inosine in a double-stranded structure found in various RNA substrates, including mRNAs. Here we present recent efforts to define structure/activity relationships for the ADAR reaction. We describe the synthesis of new phosphoramidites for the incorporation of 7-substituted-8-aza-7-deazaadenosine derivatives into RNA. These reagents were used to introduce the analogues into mimics of the R/G-editing site found in the pre-mRNA for the human glutamate receptor B subunit (GluR B). Analysis of the kinetics of the ADAR2 reaction with analogue-containing RNAs indicated 8-aza-7-deazaadenosine is an excellent substrate for this enzyme with a deamination rate eight times greater than that for adenosine. However, replacing the C7 hydrogen in this analogue with bromine, iodine, or propargyl alcohol failed to increase the deamination rate further but rather decreased the rate. Modeling of nucleotide binding in the enzyme active site suggested amino acid residues that may be involved in nucleotide recognition. We carried out a functional screen of a library of ADAR2 mutants expressed in S. cerevisiae that varied the identity of these residues to identify active deaminases with altered active sites. One of these mutants (ADAR2 R455A) was able to substantially overcome the inhibitory effect of the bulky C7 substituents (-Br, -I, propargyl alcohol). These results advance our understanding of the importance of functional groups found in the edited nucleotide and the role of specific active site residues of ADAR2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subhash Pokharel
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 South 1400 East, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112-0850, USA
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Marinec PS, Evans CG, Gibbons GS, Tarnowski MA, Overbeek DL, Gestwicki JE. Synthesis of orthogonally reactive FK506 derivatives via olefin cross metathesis. Bioorg Med Chem 2009; 17:5763-8. [PMID: 19643614 PMCID: PMC2758530 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2009.07.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2009] [Revised: 07/14/2009] [Accepted: 07/15/2009] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Chemical inducers of dimerization (CIDs) are employed in a wide range of biological applications to control protein localization, modulate protein-protein interactions and improve drug lifetimes. These bifunctional chemical probes are assembled from two synthetic modules, which each provide affinity for a distinct protein target. FK506 and its derivatives are often employed as modules in the syntheses of these bifunctional constructs, owing to the abundance and favorable distribution of their target, FK506-binding protein (FKBP). However, the structural complexity of FK506 necessitates multi-step syntheses and/or multiple protection-deprotection schemes prior to installation into CIDs. In this work, we describe an efficient, one-step synthesis of FK506 derivatives through a selective, microwave-accelerated, cross metathesis diversification step of the C39 terminal alkene. Using this approach, FK506 is modified with an array of functional groups, including primary amines and carboxylic acids, which make the resulting derivatives suitable for the modular assembly of CIDs. To illustrate this idea, we report the synthesis of a heterobifunctional HIV protease inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul S. Marinec
- Department of Pathology and the Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, 210 Washtenaw Ave, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Christopher G. Evans
- Department of Pathology and the Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, 210 Washtenaw Ave, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Garrett S. Gibbons
- Department of Pathology and the Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, 210 Washtenaw Ave, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Malloree A. Tarnowski
- Department of Pathology and the Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, 210 Washtenaw Ave, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Daniel L. Overbeek
- Department of Pathology and the Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, 210 Washtenaw Ave, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Jason E. Gestwicki
- Department of Pathology and the Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, 210 Washtenaw Ave, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
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20
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel P Walsh
- Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA
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21
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Bradner JE, McPherson OM, Koehler AN. A method for the covalent capture and screening of diverse small molecules in a microarray format. Nat Protoc 2006; 1:2344-52. [PMID: 17406478 DOI: 10.1038/nprot.2006.282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
This protocol describes a robust method for the covalent capture of small molecules with diverse reactive functional groups in microarray format, and outlines a procedure for probing small-molecule microarrays (SMMs) with proteins of interest. A vapor-catalyzed, isocyanate-mediated surface immobilization scheme is used to attach bioactive small molecules, natural products and small molecules derived from diversity-oriented synthesis pathways. Additionally, an optimized methodology for screening SMMs with purified proteins and cellular lysates is described. Finally, a suggested model for data analysis that is compatible with commercially available software is provided. These procedures enable a platform capability for discovering novel interactions with potential applications to immunoglobulin profiling, comparative analysis of cellular states and ligand discovery. With the appropriate materials and experimental setup, the printing of SMMs can be completed in 14 hours over 3 days. Screening and data analysis requires 2 days. A detailed timeline is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E Bradner
- Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, 7 Cambridge Center, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
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22
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Bayle JH, Grimley JS, Stankunas K, Gestwicki JE, Wandless TJ, Crabtree GR. Rapamycin analogs with differential binding specificity permit orthogonal control of protein activity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 13:99-107. [PMID: 16426976 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2005.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2005] [Revised: 09/29/2005] [Accepted: 10/20/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Controlling protein dimerization with small molecules has broad application to the study of protein function. Rapamycin has two binding surfaces: one that binds to FKBP12 and the other to the Frb domain of mTor/FRAP, directing their dimerization. Rapamycin is a potent cell growth inhibitor, but chemical modification of the surface contacting Frb alleviates this effect. Productive interactions with Frb-fused proteins can be restored by mutation of Frb to accommodate the rapamycin analog (a rapalog). We have quantitatively assessed the interaction between rapalogs functionalized at C16 and C20 and a panel of Frb mutants. Several drug-Frb mutant combinations have different and nonoverlapping specificities. These Frb-rapalog partners permit the selective control of different Frb fusion proteins without crossreaction. The orthogonal control of multiple target proteins broadens the capabilities of chemical induction of dimerization to regulate biologic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Henri Bayle
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California 94304, USA
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23
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Kiessling LL, Gestwicki JE, Strong LE. Synthetische multivalente Liganden als Sonden für die Signaltransduktion. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200502794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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24
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Kiessling LL, Gestwicki JE, Strong LE. Synthetic multivalent ligands as probes of signal transduction. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2006; 45:2348-68. [PMID: 16557636 PMCID: PMC2842921 DOI: 10.1002/anie.200502794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 687] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Cell-surface receptors acquire information from the extracellular environment and coordinate intracellular responses. Many receptors do not operate as individual entities, but rather as part of dimeric or oligomeric complexes. Coupling the functions of multiple receptors may endow signaling pathways with the sensitivity and malleability required to govern cellular responses. Moreover, multireceptor signaling complexes may provide a means of spatially segregating otherwise degenerate signaling cascades. Understanding the mechanisms, extent, and consequences of receptor co-localization and interreceptor communication is critical; chemical synthesis can provide compounds to address the role of receptor assembly in signal transduction. Multivalent ligands can be generated that possess a variety of sizes, shapes, valencies, orientations, and densities of binding elements. This Review focuses on the use of synthetic multivalent ligands to characterize receptor function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura L Kiessling
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin--Madison, 1101 University Ave., Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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25
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Gallinari P, Lahm A, Koch U, Paolini C, Nardi MC, Roscilli G, Kinzel O, Fattori D, Muraglia E, Toniatti C, Cortese R, De Francesco R, Ciliberto G. A functionally orthogonal estrogen receptor-based transcription switch specifically induced by a nonsteroid synthetic ligand. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 12:883-93. [PMID: 16125100 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2005.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2005] [Revised: 04/23/2005] [Accepted: 05/23/2005] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
It is highly desirable to design ligand-dependent transcription regulation systems based on transactivators unresponsive to endogenous ligands but induced by synthetic small molecules unable to activate endogenous receptors. Using molecular modeling and yeast selection, we identified an estrogen receptor ligand binding domain double mutant (L384M, M421G) with decreased affinity to estradiol and enhanced binding to compounds inactive on estrogen receptors. Nonresponsiveness to estrogen was achieved by additionally adding the G521R substitution while introducing an "antagonistic-type" side chain in the compound, as in 4-hydroxytamoxifen. The triple-substituted ligand binding domain is insensitive to physiological concentrations of estradiol and has nanomolar affinity for the ligand. In this binary system, both receptor and ligand are, therefore, reciprocally specific. The mutated variant in the context of a chimeric transcription factor provides tight, ligand-dependent regulation of reporter gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Gallinari
- Instituto di Ricerche di Biologia Molecolare P. Angeletti, MRL-Rome, Department of Biochemistry, Via Pontina km 30,600, Pomezia 00040, Italy.
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26
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Abstract
Chemical genetics is an emerging approach for studying biological systems using chemical tools. This strategy aims to reveal the macromolecules responsible for regulating biological systems; thus, the approach shares much in common with genetics. In both strategies, one must (a) develop an assay that reports on a biological process of interest, (b) perturb this process systematically (with mutations or small molecules), and (c) determine the target of each perturbation to reveal macromolecules (i.e., proteins and genes) regulating the process of interest. In this review, we discuss advances and challenges in this field that have emerged over the past four years. Several technologies have converged, raising the hope that it may be possible to systematically apply chemical probes to biological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inese Smukste
- Department of Biological Sciences and Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, Fairchild Center, New York, New York 10027, USA
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27
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Pirrung MC, Liu Y, Deng L, Halstead DK, Li Z, May JF, Wedel M, Austin DA, Webster NJG. Methyl scanning: total synthesis of demethylasterriquinone B1 and derivatives for identification of sites of interaction with and isolation of its receptor(s). J Am Chem Soc 2005; 127:4609-24. [PMID: 15796526 DOI: 10.1021/ja044325h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The principle of methyl scanning is proposed for determination of the sites of interaction between biologically active small molecules and their macromolecular target(s). It involves the systematic preparation of a family of methylated derivatives of a compound and their biological testing. As a functional assay, the method can identify the regions of a molecule that are important (and unimportant) for biological activity against even unknown targets, and thus provides an excellent complement to structural biology. Methyl scanning was applied to demethylasterriquinone B1, a small-molecule mimetic of insulin. A new, optimal total synthesis of this natural product was developed that enables the family of methyl scan derivatives to be concisely prepared for evaluation in a cellular assay. The results of this experiment were used to design a biotin-demethylasterriquinone conjugate for use as an affinity reagent. This compound was prepared in tens of milligram quantities in a four-step synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael C Pirrung
- Department of Chemistry, Levine Science Research Center, Box 90317, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708-0317, USA.
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28
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Toniatti C, Bujard H, Cortese R, Ciliberto G. Gene therapy progress and prospects: transcription regulatory systems. Gene Ther 2004; 11:649-57. [PMID: 14985790 DOI: 10.1038/sj.gt.3302251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The clinical efficacy and safety as well as the application range of gene therapy will be broadened by developing systems capable of finely modulating the expression of therapeutic genes. Transgene regulation will be crucial for maintaining appropriate levels of a gene product within the therapeutic range, thus preventing toxicity. Moreover, the possibility to modulate, stop or resume transgene expression in response to disease evolution would facilitate the combination of gene therapy with more conventional therapeutic modalities. The development of ligand-dependent transcription regulatory systems is thus of great importance. Here, we summarize the most recent progress in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Toniatti
- 1I.R.B.M.-P. Angeletti, Via Pontina Km. 30.600, 00040 Pomezia, Rome, Italy
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29
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The chemistry of the carbon–transition metal double and triple bond: annual survey covering the year 2002. Coord Chem Rev 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cct.2003.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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30
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Signarvic RS, DeGrado WF. De Novo Design of a Molecular Switch: Phosphorylation-dependent Association of Designed Peptides. J Mol Biol 2003; 334:1-12. [PMID: 14596795 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2003.09.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The de novo design of peptides that switch their oligomerization state in response to a chemical stimulus is of interest, both as a tool for understanding the basis of molecular switching as well as development of reagents for the study of signal transduction in cells. The target of the current study is the design of a series of peptides that undergo a transition from an unstructured monomer to a four-helical bundle upon phosphorylation by the enzyme cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA). The designed peptides are based on the 20-residue Lac repressor tetramerization domain. Beginning with this structure, we introduced a phosphorylation site near the N terminus. Phosphorylation leads to a 2-4.6 kcal/mol increase in the stability of the tetramer, depending on the design. The most successful switches were designed such that phosphorylation would increase the stability of the individual helices and also relieve an unfavorable electrostatic interaction in the tetramer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel S Signarvic
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Stellar-Chance Bldg Room 1010, University of Pennsylvania, 421 Curie Blvd, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6059, USA
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31
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Mootz HD, Blum ES, Tyszkiewicz AB, Muir TW. Conditional protein splicing: a new tool to control protein structure and function in vitro and in vivo. J Am Chem Soc 2003; 125:10561-9. [PMID: 12940738 DOI: 10.1021/ja0362813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Protein splicing is a naturally occurring process in which an intervening intein domain excises itself out of a precursor polypeptide in an autocatalytic fashion with concomitant linkage of the two flanking extein sequences by a native peptide bond. We have recently reported an engineered split VMA intein whose splicing activity in trans between two polypeptides can be triggered by the small molecule rapamycin. In this report, we show that this conditional protein splicing (CPS) system can be used in mammalian cells. Two model constructs harboring maltose-binding protein (MBP) and a His-tag as exteins were expressed from a constitutive promoter after transient transfection. The splicing product MBP-His was detected by Western blotting and immunoprecipitation in cells treated with rapamycin or a nontoxic analogue thereof. No background splicing in the absence of the small-molecule inducer was observed over a 24-h time course. Product formation could be detected within 10 min of addition of rapamycin, indicating the advantage of the posttranslational nature of CPS for quick responses. The level of protein splicing was dose dependent and could be competitively attenuated with the small molecule ascomycin. In related studies, the geometric flexibility of the CPS components was investigated with a series of purified proteins. The FKBP and FRB domains, which are dimerized by rapamycin and thereby induce the reconstitution of the split intein, were fused to the extein sequences of the split intein halves. CPS was still triggered by rapamycin when FKBP and FRB occupied one or both of the extein positions. This finding suggests yet further applications of CPS in the area of proteomics. In summary, CPS holds great promise to become a powerful new tool to control protein structure and function in vitro and in living cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henning D Mootz
- Laboratory of Synthetic Protein Chemistry, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10021, USA
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32
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Clark DD, Peterson BR. Analysis of protein tyrosine kinase inhibitors in recombinant yeast lacking the ERG6 gene. Chembiochem 2003; 4:101-7. [PMID: 12512083 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200390001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Studies of small-molecule-protein interactions in yeast can be hindered by the limited permeability of yeast to small molecules. This diminished permeability is thought to be related to the unique sterol composition of fungal membranes, which are enriched in the steroid ergosterol. We report the construction of the novel Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast strain DCY250, which is compatible with yeast two-hybrid-based systems and bears a targeted disruption of the ERG6 gene to ablate ergosterol biosynthesis and enhance permeability to small molecules. The small-molecule inhibitors of protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs) PP1, PP2, herbimycin A, and staurosporine were investigated with yeast tribrid systems that detect the activity of the PTKs v-Abl and v-Src. These tribrid systems function by expression of the PTK, a B42 activation domain fused to the phosphotyrosine-binding Grb2 SH2 domain, a DNA-bound LexA-GFP-(AAYANAA)(4) universal PTK substrate, and a lacZ reporter gene. Yeast genetic systems that lack functional ERG6 were found to be as much as 20-fold more sensitive to small-molecule inhibitors of PTKs than systems with ERG6, and these deficient systems may provide a useful platform for the discovery and analysis of small-molecule-protein interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel D Clark
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, 152 Davey Laboratory, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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33
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Abstract
Vitamin D-resistant rickets is a genetic disease that causes severe bone underdevelopment due to mutations in the vitamin D receptor. Orthogonal analogs of vitamin D were recently identified that correct defects in the ligand binding pocket of a mutant receptor associated with this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blake R Peterson
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, 152 Davey Lab, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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34
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Abstract
Control of gene expression using small molecules is a powerful research tool and has clinical utility in the context of regulated gene therapy. Use of chemical inducers of dimerization, or dimerizers, for this purpose has several advantages, including tight regulation, modularity to facilitate iterative improvements, and assembly from human proteins to minimize immune responses in clinical applications. Recent developments include the use of the rapamycin-based dimerizer system to regulate the expression of endogenous genes, the generation of new chemical dimerizers based on FK506, dexamethasone and methotrexate, and progress towards the clinical use of adeno-associated virus and adenovirus vectors regulated by rapamycin analogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy Pollock
- ARIAD Gene Therapeutics, 26 Landsdowne Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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