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Schmitz LM, Rosenthal K, Lütz S. Enzyme-Based Electrobiotechnological Synthesis. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2019; 167:87-134. [PMID: 29134460 DOI: 10.1007/10_2017_33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Oxidoreductases are enzymes with a high potential for organic synthesis, as their selectivity often exceeds comparable chemical syntheses. The biochemical cofactors of these enzymes need regeneration during synthesis. Several regeneration methods are available but the electrochemical approach offers an efficient and quasi mass-free method for providing the required redox equivalents. Electron transfer systems involving direct regeneration of natural and artificial cofactors, indirect electrochemical regeneration via a mediator, and indirect electroenzymatic cofactor regeneration via enzyme and mediator have been investigated. This chapter gives an overview of electroenzymatic syntheses with oxidoreductases, structured by the enzyme subclass and their usage of cofactors for electron relay. Particular attention is given to the productivity of electroenzymatic biotransformation processes. Because most electroenzymatic syntheses suffer from low productivity, we discuss reaction engineering concepts to overcome the main limiting factors, with a focus on media conductivity optimization, approaches to prevent enzyme inactivation, and the application of advanced cell designs. Graphical Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Marie Schmitz
- Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Katrin Rosenthal
- Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Stephan Lütz
- Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany.
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2
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de Almeida TP, van Schie MMCH, Ma A, Tieves F, Younes SHH, Fernández-Fueyo E, Arends IWCE, Riul A, Hollmann F. Efficient Aerobic Oxidation of trans
-2-Hexen-1-ol using the Aryl Alcohol Oxidase from Pleurotus eryngii. Adv Synth Catal 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.201801312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- T. P. de Almeida
- Department of Biotechnology; Delft University of Technology, The; Netherlands
| | | | - A. Ma
- Department of Biotechnology; Delft University of Technology, The; Netherlands
| | - F. Tieves
- Department of Biotechnology; Delft University of Technology, The; Netherlands
| | - S. H. H. Younes
- Department of Biotechnology; Delft University of Technology, The; Netherlands
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science; Sohag University; Sohag 82524 Egypt
| | - E. Fernández-Fueyo
- Department of Biotechnology; Delft University of Technology, The; Netherlands
| | | | - A. Riul
- Department of Applied Physics, “Gleb Wataghin” Institute of Physics (IFGW); University of Campinas (UNICAMP), SP; Brazil
| | - F. Hollmann
- Department of Biotechnology; Delft University of Technology, The; Netherlands
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Latham J, Brandenburger E, Shepherd SA, Menon BRK, Micklefield J. Development of Halogenase Enzymes for Use in Synthesis. Chem Rev 2017; 118:232-269. [PMID: 28466644 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Nature has evolved halogenase enzymes to regioselectively halogenate a diverse range of biosynthetic precursors, with the halogens introduced often having a profound effect on the biological activity of the resulting natural products. Synthetic endeavors to create non-natural bioactive small molecules for pharmaceutical and agrochemical applications have also arrived at a similar conclusion: halogens can dramatically improve the properties of organic molecules for selective modulation of biological targets in vivo. Consequently, a high proportion of pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals on the market today possess halogens. Halogenated organic compounds are also common intermediates in synthesis and are particularly valuable in metal-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions. Despite the potential utility of organohalogens, traditional nonenzymatic halogenation chemistry utilizes deleterious reagents and often lacks regiocontrol. Reliable, facile, and cleaner methods for the regioselective halogenation of organic compounds are therefore essential in the development of economical and environmentally friendly industrial processes. A potential avenue toward such methods is the use of halogenase enzymes, responsible for the biosynthesis of halogenated natural products, as biocatalysts. This Review will discuss advances in developing halogenases for biocatalysis, potential untapped sources of such biocatalysts and how further optimization of these enzymes is required to achieve the goal of industrial scale biohalogenation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Latham
- School of Chemistry and Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester , 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Eileen Brandenburger
- School of Chemistry and Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester , 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah A Shepherd
- School of Chemistry and Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester , 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Binuraj R K Menon
- School of Chemistry and Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester , 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Jason Micklefield
- School of Chemistry and Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester , 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom
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Holtmann D, Hollmann F. The Oxygen Dilemma: A Severe Challenge for the Application of Monooxygenases? Chembiochem 2016; 17:1391-8. [PMID: 27194219 PMCID: PMC5096067 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201600176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Monooxygenases are promising catalysts because they in principle enable the organic chemist to perform highly selective oxyfunctionalisation reactions that are otherwise difficult to achieve. For this, monooxygenases require reducing equivalents, to allow reductive activation of molecular oxygen at the enzymes' active sites. However, these reducing equivalents are often delivered to O2 either directly or via a reduced intermediate (uncoupling), yielding hazardous reactive oxygen species and wasting valuable reducing equivalents. The oxygen dilemma arises from monooxygenases' dependency on O2 and the undesired uncoupling reaction. With this contribution we hope to generate a general awareness of the oxygen dilemma and to discuss its nature and some promising solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Holtmann
- DECHEMA Research Institute, Theodor-Heuss-Allee 25, 60486, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Frank Hollmann
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Julianalaan 136, 2628BL, Delft, The Netherlands.
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Kanteev M, Bregman-Cohen A, Deri B, Shahar A, Adir N, Fishman A. A crystal structure of 2-hydroxybiphenyl 3-monooxygenase with bound substrate provides insights into the enzymatic mechanism. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2015; 1854:1906-1913. [PMID: 26275805 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2015.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2015] [Revised: 08/06/2015] [Accepted: 08/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
2-Hydroxybiphenyl 3-monooxygenase (HbpA) is an FAD dependent monooxygenase which catalyzes the ortho-hydroxylation of a broad range of 2-substituted phenols in the presence of NADH and molecular oxygen. We have determined the structure of HbpA from the soil bacterium Pseudomonas azelaica HBP1 with bound 2-hydroxybiphenyl, as well as several variants, at a resolution of 2.3-2.5Å to investigate structure function correlations of the enzyme. An observed hydrogen bond between 2-hydroxybiphenyl and His48 in the active site confirmed the previously suggested role of this residue in substrate deprotonation. The entrance to the active site was confirmed by generating variant G255F which exhibited only 7% of the wild-type's specific activity of product formation, suggesting inhibition of substrate entrance into the active site by the large aromatic residue. Residue Arg242 is suggested to facilitate FAD movement and reduction as was previously reported in studies on the homologous protein para-hydroxybenzoate hydroxylase. In addition, it is suggested that Trp225, which is located in the active site, facilitates proper substrate entrance into the binding pocket in contrast to aklavinone-11-hydroxylase and para-hydroxybenzoate hydroxylase in which a residue at a similar position is responsible for substrate deprotonation. Structure function correlations described in this work will aid in the design of variants with improved activity and altered selectivity for potential industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarita Kanteev
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Almog Bregman-Cohen
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Batel Deri
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Anat Shahar
- Macromolecular Crystallography Research Center (MCRC), Department of Life Sciences & NIBN, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Noam Adir
- Schulich Faculty of Chemistry, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Ayelet Fishman
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel.
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Holtmann D, Fraaije MW, Arends IWCE, Opperman DJ, Hollmann F. The taming of oxygen: biocatalytic oxyfunctionalisations. Chem Commun (Camb) 2015; 50:13180-200. [PMID: 24902635 DOI: 10.1039/c3cc49747j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The scope and limitations of oxygenases as catalysts for preparative organic synthesis is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Holtmann
- DECHEMA Research Institute, Theodor-Heuss-Allee 25, 60486 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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7
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Jensen CN, Mielke T, Farrugia JE, Frank A, Man H, Hart S, Turkenburg JP, Grogan G. Structures of the Apo and FAD-bound forms of 2-hydroxybiphenyl 3-monooxygenase (HbpA) locate activity hotspots identified by using directed evolution. Chembiochem 2015; 16:968-76. [PMID: 25737306 PMCID: PMC4515095 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201402701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The FAD-dependent monooxygenase HbpA from Pseudomonas azelaica HBP1 catalyses the hydroxylation of 2-hydroxybiphenyl (2HBP) to 2,3-dihydroxybiphenyl (23DHBP). HbpA has been used extensively as a model for studying flavoprotein hydroxylases under process conditions, and has also been subjected to directed-evolution experiments that altered its catalytic properties. The structure of HbpA has been determined in its apo and FAD-complex forms to resolutions of 2.76 and 2.03 Å, respectively. Comparisons of the HbpA structure with those of homologues, in conjunction with a model of the reaction product in the active site, reveal His48 as the most likely acid/base residue to be involved in the hydroxylation mechanism. Mutation of His48 to Ala resulted in an inactive enzyme. The structures of HbpA also provide evidence that mutants achieved by directed evolution that altered activity are comparatively remote from the substrate-binding site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chantel N Jensen
- York Structural Biology Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of York, Heslington, York, YO10 5DD (UK)
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Tomaszewski B, Schmid A, Buehler K. Biocatalytic Production of Catechols Using a High Pressure Tube-in-Tube Segmented Flow Microreactor. Org Process Res Dev 2014. [DOI: 10.1021/op5002116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bartłomiej Tomaszewski
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology,
Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge Straße 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Andreas Schmid
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology,
Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge Straße 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Katja Buehler
- Laboratory of Chemical Biotechnology,
Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge Straße 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
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9
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Tomaszewski B, Lloyd RC, Warr AJ, Buehler K, Schmid A. Regioselective Biocatalytic Aromatic Hydroxylation in a Gas-Liquid Multiphase Tube-in-Tube Reactor. ChemCatChem 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201402354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Churakova E, Tomaszewski B, Buehler K, Schmid A, Arends I, Hollmann F. Hydrophobic Formic Acid Esters for Cofactor Regeneration in Aqueous/Organic Two-Liquid Phase Systems. Top Catal 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s11244-013-0195-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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12
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Kim JA, Kim S, Lee J, Baeg JO, Kim J. Photochemical Production of NADH Using Cobaloxime Catalysts and Visible-Light Energy. Inorg Chem 2012; 51:8057-63. [DOI: 10.1021/ic300185n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jin Ah Kim
- Department of Chemistry
and Nano Science, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Korea
| | - Soojin Kim
- Department of Chemistry
and Nano Science, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Korea
| | - Jungha Lee
- Department of Chemistry
and Nano Science, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Korea
| | - Jin-Oog Baeg
- Advanced Chemical
Technology Division, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Daejeon 305-343, Korea
| | - Jinheung Kim
- Department of Chemistry
and Nano Science, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Korea
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Schmidt T, Michalik C, Zavrel M, Spiess A, Marquardt W, Ansorge-Schumacher MB. Mechanistic model for prediction of formate dehydrogenase kinetics under industrially relevant conditions. Biotechnol Prog 2010; 26:73-8. [PMID: 19830796 DOI: 10.1002/btpr.282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Formate dehydrogenase (FDH) from Candida boidinii is an important biocatalyst for the regeneration of the cofactor NADH in industrial enzyme-catalyzed reductions. The mathematical model that is currently applied to predict progress curves during (semi-)batch reactions has been derived from initial rate studies. Here, it is demonstrated that such extrapolation from initial reaction rates to performance during a complete batch leads to considerable prediction errors. This observation can be attributed to an invalid simplification during the development of the literature model. A novel mechanistic model that describes the course and performance of FDH-catalyzed NADH regeneration under industrially relevant process conditions is introduced and evaluated. Based on progress curve instead of initial reaction rate measurements, it was discriminated from a comprehensive set of mechanistic model candidates. For the prediction of reaction courses on long time horizons (>1 h), decomposition of NADH has to be considered. The model accurately describes the regeneration reaction under all conditions, even at high concentrations of the substrate formate and thus is clearly superior to the existing model. As a result, for the first time, course and performance of NADH regeneration in industrial enzyme-catalyzed reductions can be accurately predicted and used to optimize the cost efficiency of the respective processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Schmidt
- Chair of Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
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Hollmann F, Schmid A. Electrochemical Regeneration of Oxidoreductases for Cell-free Biocatalytic Redox Reactions. BIOCATAL BIOTRANSFOR 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/10242420410001692778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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15
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Hollmann F, Taglieber A, Schulz F, Reetz MT. A light-driven stereoselective biocatalytic oxidation. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2007; 46:2903-6. [PMID: 17352446 DOI: 10.1002/anie.200605169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Frank Hollmann
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1, 45470 Mülheim/Ruhr, Germany
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LÜ T, XU Y, MU X, NIE Y. Promotion Effect of Xylose Co-substrate on Stability of Catalytic System for Asymmetric Redox of (R,S)-1- Phenyl-1,2-ethanediol to Its (S)-Enantiomer by Candida parapsilosis. CHINESE JOURNAL OF CATALYSIS 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/s1872-2067(07)60039-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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17
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Hollmann F, Taglieber A, Schulz F, Reetz M. A Light-Driven Stereoselective Biocatalytic Oxidation. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200605169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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18
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Ruinatscha R, Höllrigl V, Otto K, Schmid A. Productivity of Selective Electroenzymatic Reduction and Oxidation Reactions: Theoretical and Practical Considerations. Adv Synth Catal 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.200600257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Betancor L, Berne C, Luckarift HR, Spain JC. Coimmobilization of a redox enzyme and a cofactor regeneration system. Chem Commun (Camb) 2006:3640-2. [PMID: 17047791 DOI: 10.1039/b604689d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The coimmobilization of nitrobenzene nitroreductase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase in silica particles enables the continuous conversion of nitrobenzene to hydroxylaminobenzene with NADPH recycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena Betancor
- Air Force Research Laboratory, 139 Barnes Drive, Suite #2, Tyndall AFB, FL 32403-5323, USA
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Hollmann F, Hofstetter K, Schmid A. Non-enzymatic regeneration of nicotinamide and flavin cofactors for monooxygenase catalysis. Trends Biotechnol 2006; 24:163-71. [PMID: 16488494 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2006.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2005] [Revised: 10/25/2005] [Accepted: 02/03/2006] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Biocatalytic oxygenation chemistry is a rapidly evolving field in which monooxygenases are the tools of choice. Monooxygenases catalyze many industrially important synthetic transformations; however, their use in preparative applications is hampered by their intrinsic requirement for reducing equivalents. As a result, non-enzymatic strategies--where the reducing equivalents are introduced directly into the catalytic cycle--are being developed to supersede the well-established enzymatic NAD(P)H regeneration systems currently in use. In this review we summarize and evaluate recent achievements in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Hollmann
- Degussa Care & Surface Specialties, Goldschmidt AG, Goldschmidtstrasse 100, 45127 Essen, Germany
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Tao Y, Bentley WE, Wood TK. Phenol and 2-naphthol production by toluene 4-monooxygenases using an aqueous/dioctyl phthalate system. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2005; 68:614-21. [PMID: 15742167 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-005-1939-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2004] [Revised: 01/25/2005] [Accepted: 02/08/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A two-phase system is developed here for converting: (1) benzene to phenol and (2) naphthalene to 2-naphthol, using whole cells expressing wild-type toluene 4-monooxygenase (T4MO) and the alpha subunit variant TmoA I100A from Pseudomonas mendocina KR1. Using the T4MO TmoA I100A variant, the solubility of naphthalene was enhanced and the toxicity of the naphthols was prevented by the use of a water/dioctyl phthalate (80:20, vol%) system which yielded 21-fold more 2-naphthol. More than 99% 2-naphthol was extracted to the dioctyl phthalate phase, dihydroxynaphthalene formation was prevented, 92% 2-naphthol was formed, and 12% naphthalene was converted. Similarly, using 50 vol% dioctyl phthalate, an initial concentration of 3.0 g l(-1) (39 mM), and wild-type T4MO, a 51+/-9% conversion of benzene was obtained and phenol was produced at a purity of 97%. Relative to the one-phase system, there was a 12-fold reduction in the formation of the byproduct catechol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Tao
- Departments of Chemical Engineering & Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, 06269-3222, USA
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Lutz J, Hollmann F, Ho TV, Schnyder A, Fish RH, Schmid A. Bioorganometallic chemistry: biocatalytic oxidation reactions with biomimetic NAD+/NADH co-factors and [Cp*Rh(bpy)H]+ for selective organic synthesis. J Organomet Chem 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jorganchem.2004.09.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Lin PH, Sangaiah R, Ranasinghe A, Ball LM, Swenberg JA, Gold A. Synthesis of chlorinated and non-chlorinated biphenyl-2,3- and 3,4-catechols and their [2H3]-isotopomers. Org Biomol Chem 2004; 2:2624-9. [PMID: 15351827 DOI: 10.1039/b409373a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A synthetic scheme is described for chlorinated biphenyl-2,3- and 3,4-catechols to be used as standards for structural assignment of metabolites and protein adducts of 2,2',5,5'-tetrachlorobiphenyl in which both rings retain chlorine substituents. The scheme has general applicability to the synthesis of chlorinated biphenyl catechols. Dimethyl catechol ethers are coupled to dichloroaniline via the Cadogan reaction to give a library of isomers, followed by demethylation of the ethers with BBr3 to yield the target catechols. Separation of pure isomers is accomplished by TLC or HPLC prior to or following demethylation, depending on the isomer mixture. [2H3]-Isotopomers are generated using 2,5-dichloroaniline-d3 as the starting arylamine in the coupling reaction. The dichloroaniline-d3 hydrochloride is obtained as the sole product from nitration of p-dichlorobenzene-d4 followed by Pd/C-catalyzed hydrogenation under strongly acidic conditions. This hydrogenation procedure provides a simple and convenient approach to selective reduction of aryl nitro groups in the presence of halogen ring substituents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Po-Hsiung Lin
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of North Carolina, CB7431, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7431, USA
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Abstract
NAD(P)-dependent oxidoreductases are valuable tools for the synthesis of chiral compounds. Due to the high cost of the pyridine cofactors, in situ cofactor regeneration is required for preparative applications. In recent years, existing regeneration methodologies have been improved and new approaches have been devised. These include the use of newly discovered dehydrogenases that are stable in high contents of organic solvent and novel enzymes that can regenerate either the reduced or oxidized forms of the cofactor. The use of electrochemical methods has allowed cofactor regeneration for monooxygenases and natural or engineered whole-cell systems provide alternatives to approaches relying on purified enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wilfred A van der Donk
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 S. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
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Hollmann F, Lin PC, Witholt B, Schmid A. Stereospecific biocatalytic epoxidation: the first example of direct regeneration of a FAD-dependent monooxygenase for catalysis. J Am Chem Soc 2003; 125:8209-17. [PMID: 12837091 DOI: 10.1021/ja034119u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Catalysis for chemical synthesis by cell-free monooxygenases necessitates an efficient and robust in situ regeneration system to supply the enzyme with reducing equivalents. We report on a novel approach to directly regenerate flavin-dependent monooxygenases. The organometallic complex [CpRh(bpy)(H(2)O)](2+) catalyzes the transhydrogenation reaction between formate and isoalloxazine-based cofactors such as FAD and FMN. Coupling this FADH(2) regeneration reaction to the FADH(2)-dependent styrene monooxygenase (StyA) resulted in a chemoenzymatic epoxidation reaction where the organometallic compound substitutes for the native reductase (StyB), the nicotinamide coenzyme (NAD), and an artificial NADH regeneration system such as formate dehydrogenase. Various styrene derivatives were converted into the essentially optically pure (S)-epoxides (ee > 98%). In addition, StyA was shown to be capable of performing sulfoxidation reactions. The productivity of the chemoenzymatic epoxidation reaction using 6.5 microM StyA reached up to 6.4 mM/h, corresponding to approximately 70% of a comparable fully enzymatic reaction using StyB, NADH, and formate dehydrogenase for regeneration. The coupling efficiency of the nonenzymatic regeneration reaction to enzymatic epoxidation was examined in detail, leading to an optimized reaction setup with minimized quenching of the electron supply for the epoxidation reaction. Thus, up to 60% of the reducing equivalents provided via [CpRh(bpy)(H(2)O)](2+) could be channeled into epoxide rather than hydrogen peroxide formation, allowing selective synthesis with high yields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Hollmann
- Institute of Biotechnology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
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Meyer A, Held M, Schmid A, Kohler HPE, Witholt B. Synthesis of 3-tert-butylcatechol by an engineered monooxygenase. Biotechnol Bioeng 2003; 81:518-24. [PMID: 12514800 DOI: 10.1002/bit.10487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Recombinant Escherichia coli JM101 was used for the in vivo biocatalytic synthesis of 3-tert-butyl- catechol. The bacterial strain synthesized the laboratory-evolved variant HbpA(T2) of 2-hydroxybiphenyl 3-monooxygenase (HbpA, EC 1.14.13.44) from Pseudomonas azelaica HBP1. The mutant enzyme HbpA(T2) is able to hydroxylate 2-tert-butylphenol to the corresponding catechol, a reaction that is not catalyzed by the wild-type enzyme. The biotransformation was performed in a 3-L bioreactor for 24 h. To mitigate the toxicity of the 2-tert-butylphenol starting material, we applied a limited substrate feed. Continuous in situ product removal with the hydrophobic resin Amberlite XAD-4 was used to separate the product from culture broth. In addition, binding to the resin stabilized the product, which was important because 3-tert-butylcatechol is very labile in aqueous solution. The productivity of the process was 63 mg L(-1) h(-1) so that after 24 h, 3.0 g of 3-tert-butylcatechol were isolated. Down-stream processing consisted of two steps. First, bound 2-tert-butylphenol and 3-tert-butylcatechol were eluted from Amberlite XAD-4 with methanol. Second, the two compounds were separated over neutral aluminum oxide, which selectively binds the produced catechol but not the phenol substrate. The final purity of 3-tert-butylcatechol was greater than 98%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Meyer
- Institute of Biotechnology, ETHZ, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Hönggerberg, HPT, CH-8093, Zürich, Switzerland
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Kamerbeek NM, Olsthoorn AJJ, Fraaije MW, Janssen DB. Substrate specificity and enantioselectivity of 4-hydroxyacetophenone monooxygenase. Appl Environ Microbiol 2003; 69:419-26. [PMID: 12514023 PMCID: PMC152415 DOI: 10.1128/aem.69.1.419-426.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The 4-hydroxyacetophenone monooxygenase (HAPMO) from Pseudomonas fluorescens ACB catalyzes NADPH- and oxygen-dependent Baeyer-Villiger oxidation of 4-hydroxyacetophenone to the corresponding acetate ester. Using the purified enzyme from recombinant Escherichia coli, we found that a broad range of carbonylic compounds that are structurally more or less similar to 4-hydroxyacetophenone are also substrates for this flavin-containing monooxygenase. On the other hand, several carbonyl compounds that are substrates for other Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) are not converted by HAPMO. In addition to performing Baeyer-Villiger reactions with aromatic ketones and aldehydes, the enzyme was also able to catalyze sulfoxidation reactions by using aromatic sulfides. Furthermore, several heterocyclic and aliphatic carbonyl compounds were also readily converted by this BVMO. To probe the enantioselectivity of HAPMO, the conversion of bicyclohept-2-en-6-one and two aryl alkyl sulfides was studied. The monooxygenase preferably converted (1R,5S)-bicyclohept-2-en-6-one, with an enantiomeric ratio (E) of 20, thus enabling kinetic resolution to obtain the (1S,5R) enantiomer. Complete conversion of both enantiomers resulted in the accumulation of two regioisomeric lactones with moderate enantiomeric excess (ee) for the two lactones obtained [77% ee for (1S,5R)-2 and 34% ee for (1R,5S)-3]. Using methyl 4-tolyl sulfide and methylphenyl sulfide, we found that HAPMO is efficient and highly selective in the asymmetric formation of the corresponding (S)-sulfoxides (ee > 99%). The biocatalytic properties of HAPMO described here show the potential of this enzyme for biotechnological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanne M Kamerbeek
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
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Moonen M, Fraaije M, Rietjens I, Laane C, van Berkel W. Flavoenzyme-Catalyzed Oxygenations and Oxidations of Phenolic Compounds. Adv Synth Catal 2002. [DOI: 10.1002/1615-4169(200212)344:10<1023::aid-adsc1023>3.0.co;2-t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Preparative application of 2-hydroxybiphenyl 3-monooxygenase with enzymatic cofactor regeneration in organic-aqueous reaction media. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s1381-1177(02)00165-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Parales RE, Bruce NC, Schmid A, Wackett LP. Biodegradation, biotransformation, and biocatalysis (b3). Appl Environ Microbiol 2002; 68:4699-709. [PMID: 12324310 PMCID: PMC126401 DOI: 10.1128/aem.68.10.4699-4709.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- R E Parales
- Department of Microbiology and Center for Biocatalysis and Bioprocessing, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA.
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Li Z, van Beilen JB, Duetz WA, Schmid A, de Raadt A, Griengl H, Witholt B. Oxidative biotransformations using oxygenases. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2002; 6:136-44. [PMID: 12038996 DOI: 10.1016/s1367-5931(02)00296-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Considerable progress has been made in manipulating oxidative biotransformations using oxygenases. Substrate acceptance, catalytic activity, regioselectivity and stereoselectivity have been improved significantly by substrate engineering, enzyme engineering or biocatalyst screening. Preparative biotransformations have been carried out to synthesize useful pharmaceutical intermediates or chiral synthons on the gram to several-hundred-gram scale, by use of whole cells of wild type or recombinant strains. The synthetic application of oxygenases in vitro has been shown to be possible by enzymatic or electrochemical regeneration of NADH or NADPH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Li
- Institute of Biotechnology, ETH Zurich, Hoenggerberg, CH-8093, Zurich, Switzerland.
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