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Rainer B, Pinter E, Czerny T, Riegel E, Kirchnawy C, Marin-Kuan M, Schilter B, Tacker M. Suitability of the Ames test to characterise genotoxicity of food contact material migrates. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2018; 35:2230-2243. [PMID: 30257137 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2018.1519259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) are chemical impurities which can migrate from packaging materials (FCM) into food. Safety assessment of NIAS is required by European law, but currently there is no comprehensive testing strategy available. In this context, one key element is to get insight on the potential presence of genotoxic NIAS in FCM migrates. This raises questions about the limit at which genotoxins can be detected in complex mixtures such as FCM migrates, and if such limits of detection (LOD) would be compatible with safety. In this context, the present review assesses the suitability of the Ames assay to address genotoxicity of FCM migrates. Lowest effective concentrations of packaging-related and other chemicals in test media were retrieved from scientific literature and used as surrogates of LODs to be benchmarked against a value of 0.01 mg kg-1 (10 ppb) in migrates. This is a pragmatic threshold used in FCM safety evaluation to prioritise substances requiring proper identification and risk assessment. The analysis of the data shows that only potent genotoxins can theoretically be detectable at a level of 0.01 mg kg-1 in migrates or food. Only a minority (10%) of genotoxic chemicals reported to be associated with FCMs could be picked up at a level of 0.01 mg kg-1 or lower. Overall, this review shows that the Ames test in its present form cannot be used as standalone method for evaluating the genotoxic potential of FCM migrates, but must be used together with other information from analytical chemistry and FCM manufacturing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Rainer
- a Department of Applied Life Sciences , University of Applied Sciences, FH Campus Wien , Vienna , Austria
| | - Elisabeth Pinter
- a Department of Applied Life Sciences , University of Applied Sciences, FH Campus Wien , Vienna , Austria
| | - Thomas Czerny
- a Department of Applied Life Sciences , University of Applied Sciences, FH Campus Wien , Vienna , Austria
| | - Elisabeth Riegel
- a Department of Applied Life Sciences , University of Applied Sciences, FH Campus Wien , Vienna , Austria
| | - Christian Kirchnawy
- b Department for Microbiology and Cell Culture , OFI - Austrian Research Institute for Chemistry and Technology , Vienna , Austria
| | - Maricel Marin-Kuan
- c Chemical Food Safety , Nestlé Research Center , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Benoît Schilter
- c Chemical Food Safety , Nestlé Research Center , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Manfred Tacker
- a Department of Applied Life Sciences , University of Applied Sciences, FH Campus Wien , Vienna , Austria
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Computational identification of structural factors affecting the mutagenic potential of aromatic amines: study design and experimental validation. Arch Toxicol 2018; 92:2369-2384. [PMID: 29779177 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-018-2216-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
A grid-based, alignment-independent 3D-SDAR (three-dimensional spectral data-activity relationship) approach based on simulated 13C and 15N NMR chemical shifts augmented with through-space interatomic distances was used to model the mutagenicity of 554 primary and 419 secondary aromatic amines. A robust modeling strategy supported by extensive validation including randomized training/hold-out test set pairs, validation sets, "blind" external test sets as well as experimental validation was applied to avoid over-parameterization and build Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD 2004) compliant models. Based on an experimental validation set of 23 chemicals tested in a two-strain Salmonella typhimurium Ames assay, 3D-SDAR was able to achieve performance comparable to 5-strain (Ames) predictions by Lhasa Limited's Derek and Sarah Nexus for the same set. Furthermore, mapping of the most frequently occurring bins on the primary and secondary aromatic amine structures allowed the identification of molecular features that were associated either positively or negatively with mutagenicity. Prominent structural features found to enhance the mutagenic potential included: nitrobenzene moieties, conjugated π-systems, nitrothiophene groups, and aromatic hydroxylamine moieties. 3D-SDAR was also able to capture "true" negative contributions that are particularly difficult to detect through alternative methods. These include sulphonamide, acetamide, and other functional groups, which not only lack contributions to the overall mutagenic potential, but are known to actively lower it, if present in the chemical structures of what otherwise would be potential mutagens.
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Maiti S, Sasmal K, Sinha SS, Singh M. Analysis of cytotoxicity and genotoxicity on E. coli, human blood cells and Allium cepa suggests a greater toxic potential of hair dye. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2016; 124:248-254. [PMID: 26544094 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.10.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2015] [Revised: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/23/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are among the most important emerging environmental contaminants in recent time. PPCPs include wide range of cosmetics, among which hair dyes, are immensely popular in modern society. However, impact of hair dye and its residual discharged to the environment in relation to human health and ecological imbalance have not been widely studied. Based on the result of initial survey among the group of populations of eastern India, three most popular and commonly used permanent hair dyes are selected. Working sample of dye is prepared as recommended on the instructions booklet of the hair dye. The effect of three dyes is studied on Escherichia coli, human red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells (WBC) and Allium cepa bulbs by growth inhibition, hemolysis, 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazolyl-2)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazolyl-2)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and A. cepa micronuclei assays respectively. The Lethal dose (LD) demonstrated significant differences among three dyes and the model systems. In vitro hemolytic assays performed on RBC, and MTT assays on WBC show the cytotoxic effects of hair dye. Significant growth inhibition of E. coli has also been noted. In addition, the root tips of A. cepa treated with the dye have shown major chromosomal abnormalities coupled with cell division retardation. Here low mitotic index confirm cell division retardation. Finally, results of in vitro studies of dye-DNA interactions demonstrate electrostatic interaction. Combing all these results it confirms that hair dyes are cytotoxic and may cause mutagenic effect on living cells irrespective of microbes, plant and animal system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swati Maiti
- Department of Biotechnology, Haldia Institute of Technology, HIT campus, Hatiberia, Purba Medinipur, Haldia 721657, India
| | - Kankaayan Sasmal
- Department of Biotechnology, Haldia Institute of Technology, HIT campus, Hatiberia, Purba Medinipur, Haldia 721657, India
| | - Sudarson Sekhar Sinha
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Jackson State University, 1400 J. R. Lynch Street, P.O. Box 17910, Jackson, MS, USA
| | - Mukesh Singh
- Department of Biotechnology, Haldia Institute of Technology, HIT campus, Hatiberia, Purba Medinipur, Haldia 721657, India.
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Erkekoglu P, Chao MW, Ye W, Ge J, Trudel LJ, Skipper PL, Kocer-Gumusel B, Engelward BP, Wogan GN, Tannenbaum SR. Cytoplasmic and nuclear toxicity of 3,5-dimethylaminophenol and potential protection by selenocompounds. Food Chem Toxicol 2014; 72:98-110. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2014.06.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2014] [Revised: 06/02/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Kanno T, Nakamura K, Ikai H, Kikuchi K, Sasaki K, Niwano Y. Literature review of the role of hydroxyl radicals in chemically-induced mutagenicity and carcinogenicity for the risk assessment of a disinfection system utilizing photolysis of hydrogen peroxide. J Clin Biochem Nutr 2012; 51:9-14. [PMID: 22798706 PMCID: PMC3391867 DOI: 10.3164/jcbn.11-105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2011] [Accepted: 09/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We have developed a new disinfection system for oral hygiene, proving that hydroxyl radicals generated by the photolysis of 1 M hydrogen peroxide could effectively kill oral pathogenic microorganisms. Prior to any clinical testing, the safety of the system especially in terms of the risk of carcinogenicity is examined by reviewing the literature. Previous studies have investigated indirectly the kinds of reactive oxygen species involved in some sort of chemically-induced mutagenicity in vitro by using reactive oxygen species scavengers, suggesting the possible involvement of hydroxyl radicals. Similarly, possible involvement of hydroxyl radicals in some sort of chemically-induced carcinogenicity has been proposed. Notably, it is suggested that the hydroxyl radical can play a role in heavy metal-induced carcinogenicity that requires chronic exposure to the carcinogen. In these cases, hydroxyl radicals produced by Fenton-like reactions may be involved in the carcinogenicity. Meanwhile, potential advantages have been reported on the use of the hydroxyl radical, being included in host immune defense by polymorphonuclear leukocytes, and medical applications such as for cancer treatment and antibiotics. From these, we conclude that there would seem to be little to no risk in using the hydroxyl radical as a disinfectant for short-term treatment of the oral cavity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taro Kanno
- Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, Seiryo-machi 4-1, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
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Fe-superoxide dismutase and 2-hydroxy-1,4-benzoquinone reductase preclude the auto-oxidation step in 4-aminophenol metabolism by Burkholderia sp. strain AK-5. Biodegradation 2010; 22:1-11. [DOI: 10.1007/s10532-010-9369-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2010] [Accepted: 05/04/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Clauss M, Grotjohann N. Comparative mutagenesis of Escherichia coli strains with different repair deficiencies irradiated with 222-nm and 254-nm ultraviolet light. Mutat Res 2009; 673:83-6. [PMID: 19146982 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2008.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2008] [Revised: 11/17/2008] [Accepted: 11/30/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Photoinactivation and reversion to tryptophan prototrophy were studied in four Escherichia coli strains with different repair deficiencies. Cells were irradiated with 222-nm wavelength UV emitted by an excimer lamp and with 254-nm wavelength UV emitted by a low-pressure mercury lamp. Strain DSM 9494 (trp(-)uvrA(+)) turned out to be most resistant while the strain DSM 9495 (trp(-)uvrA(-)), which is defective in nucleotide-excision repair (NER) was most sensitive to both wavelengths. UV-fluence rates for a respective inactivation were twice as high for 222-nm wavelength UV than for 254-nm UV. No clear difference in efficiency of inactivation could be observed between the two wavelengths in strains DSM 9496 (trp(-)uvrA(+) pKM101) and DSM 9497 (trp(-)uvrA(-) pKM101). In general, more revertants were induced by 254-nm wavelength UV, which corroborates the hypothesis that a higher amount of DNA damage was induced by this wavelength than by 222-nm UV, except for DSM 9497 where no clear difference could be observed regarding the number of revertants induced by both wavelengths. This strain DSM 9497 has a high sensitivity to certain oxidative mutagens compared with other strains, which is indicative of formation of reactive oxygen species during irradiation with 222-nm wavelength UV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus Clauss
- Faculty of Biology, University of Bielefeld, Universitätsstrasse 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany.
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Zhang JJ, Wang B, Li YF, Jia WL, Cui H, Wang HS. Electrochemical Study on DNA Damage Based on the Direct Oxidation of 8-Hydroxydeoxyguanosine at an Electrochemically Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode. ELECTROANAL 2008. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.200804233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Martínez-Cabot A, Messeguer A. Generation of Quinoneimine Intermediates in the Bioactivation of 3-(N-Phenylamino)alanine (PAA) by Human Liver Microsomes: A Potential Link Between Eosinophilia-Myalgia Syndrome and Toxic Oil Syndrome. Chem Res Toxicol 2007; 20:1556-62. [PMID: 17892268 DOI: 10.1021/tx700256v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome (EMS) was an intoxication episode that occurred in the US in 1989 and affected 1,500 people. EMS was associated with the ingestion of manufactured L-tryptophan, and 3-(N-phenylamino)alanine (PAA) was identified as one of the contaminants present in the L-tryptophan batches responsible for intoxication. In previous studies (Martínez-Cabot et al., Chem Res. Toxicol., in press), we have shown that the incubation of 3-(N-phenylamino)propane-1,2-diol (PAP), a toxic biomarker of the oil batches that caused Toxic Oil Syndrome in Spain, with human liver microsomes generates a reactive quinoneimine intermediate. The structural similarity between PAA and PAP led Mayeno and co-workers (Mayeno et al. (1995) Chem. Res. Toxicol. 8, 911-916) to hypothesize that both xenobiotics could be linked to a common etiologic agent. We thus set about to study the bioactivation of PAA by human liver microsomes. Under these conditions, PAA is converted to its 4'-hydroxy derivative, an unstable intermediate that is rapidly transformed into the final metabolites 4-aminophenol and formylglycine, which were identified in the incubations by GC/MS using the H2(18)O-labeled medium. We also provide evidence that 4-aminophenol and formylglycine are formed from a quinoneimine intermediate via a pathway similar to that demonstrated for PAP bioactivation. This quinoneimine, in the absence of nucleophiles in the incubation medium, could isomerize to give the corresponding imine, which could undergo hydrolysis to yield the aforementioned final products. These findings establish that EMS and TOS are linked by a common toxic metabolite (4-aminophenol) and that they may be further linked by the concomitant release of potentially hazardous carbonyl species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Martínez-Cabot
- Department of Biological Organic Chemistry, Institut d'Investigacions Químiques i Ambientals de Barcelona, Spain
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Michałowicz J, Duda W, Stufka-Olczyk J. Transformation of phenol, catechol, guaiacol and syringol exposed to sodium hypochlorite. CHEMOSPHERE 2007; 66:657-63. [PMID: 16963105 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.07.083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2005] [Revised: 07/25/2006] [Accepted: 07/29/2006] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Germs, xenobiotics and organic matter that influence the colour, turbidity and organoloeptic properties of water are removed by chlorination. Unfortunately, chlorine oxidants including sodium hypochlorite, used in water treatment induce processes that partly convert the treated compounds to unwanted chlorinated derivatives. The purpose of this work was to analyse the efficiency of transformation of phenol, catechol, guaiacol and syringol exposed to sodium hypochlorite and determine the intermediates formed during oxidative conversion of these compounds. The analysis was performed in aerobic conditions, both in acidic (pH 4.0) and alkaline (pH 8.0) medium. The effectiveness of transformation was slightly higher in acidic in comparison to alkaline conditions. Some chlorophenols, such as 2-chlorophenol, 2,4-dichlorophenol, 2,4,5-trichlorophenol and pentachlorophenol were determined as the products of phenol conversion. Chlorophenols were also formed during catechol, guaiacol and syringol transformation by replacement of hydroxy and methoxy residues by chlorine atoms. Moreover, some chlorocatechols and chlorinated methoxyphenols were determined during catechol and methoxyphenols transformations. Higher concentrations of chlorinated compounds were observed in the alkaline environment during phenol transformation. Conversion of catechol and methoxyphenols generated higher amounts of chlorinated intermediates in the acidic medium. In samples carboxylic acids like acetic and formic acids were determined. The formation of these compounds was the result of the cleavage of aromatic structure of phenols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaromir Michałowicz
- Department of Biophysics of Environmental Pollution, University of Łódź, 12/16 Banacha St., 90-237 Łódź, Poland.
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Takenaka S, Okugawa S, Kadowaki M, Murakami S, Aoki K. The metabolic pathway of 4-aminophenol in Burkholderia sp. strain AK-5 differs from that of aniline and aniline with C-4 substituents. Appl Environ Microbiol 2003; 69:5410-3. [PMID: 12957929 PMCID: PMC194951 DOI: 10.1128/aem.69.9.5410-5413.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Burkholderia sp. strain AK-5 utilized 4-aminophenol as the sole carbon, nitrogen, and energy source. A pathway for the metabolism of 4-aminophenol in strain AK-5 was proposed based on the identification of three key metabolites by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis. Strain AK-5 converted 4-aminophenol to 1,2,4-trihydroxybenzene via 1,4-benzenediol. 1,2,4-Trihydroxybenzene 1,2-dioxygenase cleaved the benzene ring of 1,2,4-trihydroxybenzene to form maleylacetic acid. The enzyme showed a high dioxygenase activity only for 1,2,4-trihydroxybenzene, with K(m) and V(max) values of 9.6 micro M and 6.8 micro mol min(-1) mg of protein(-1), respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinji Takenaka
- Department of Biofunctional Chemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, Kobe University, Rokko, Kobe, Japan
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Martínez A, Urios A, Blanco M. Mutagenicity of 80 chemicals in Escherichia coli tester strains IC203, deficient in OxyR, and its oxyR(+) parent WP2 uvrA/pKM101: detection of 31 oxidative mutagens. Mutat Res 2000; 467:41-53. [PMID: 10771270 DOI: 10.1016/s1383-5718(00)00020-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Strain IC203, deficient in OxyR, and its oxyR(+) parent WP2 uvrA/pKM101 (denoted IC188) are the basis of a new bacterial reversion assay, the WP2 Mutoxitest, which has been used in the evaluation of 80 chemicals for oxidative mutagenicity. The following 31 oxidative mutagens were recognized by their greater mutagenic response in IC203 than in IC188: (1) peroxides: hydrogen peroxide (HP), t-butyl hydroperoxide (BOOH) and cumene hydroperoxide (COOH); (2) benzoquinones (BQ): 2-methyl-1,4-BQ, 2,6-dimethyl-1,4-BQ and 2,3, 5,6-tetramethyl-1,4-BQ; (3) naphthoquinones (NQ): 1,4-NQ, 2-methyl-1, 4-NQ and 2-hydroxy-1,4-NQ; (4) phenol derivatives: catechol, hydroquinone, pyrogallol, 1,2,4-benzenetriol, t-butylhydroquinone, gallic acid and 4-aminophenol; (5) catecholamines: DL- and L-dopa, DL- and L-epinephrine, dopamine and L-norepinephrine; (6) thiols: L-cysteine methyl ester, L-cysteine ethyl ester, L-penicillamine and dithiothreitol; (7) diverse: 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, hypoxanthine and xanthine, both in the presence of xanthine oxidase, L-ascorbic acid plus copper (II) and phenazine methosulfate. Among these oxidative mutagens, 25 were found to be uniquely positive in IC203. With the exception of BOOH and COOH, mutagenesis by all oxidative mutagens was inhibited by catalase present in rat liver S9, indicating that it is mediated by HP generation, probably in autoxidation reactions. These catalase-sensitive oxidative mutagens were poor inducers of mutations derived from 8-oxoguanine lesions, whereas such mutations were efficiently induced by organic hydroperoxides. The results support the usefulness of incorporating IC203 in the bacterial battery for testing of chemicals. The well-characterized oxidative mutagens available with the use of the WP2 Mutoxitest may serve as a reference in studies on the genotoxicity of oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Martínez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Citológicas, Fundación Valenciana de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Amadeo de Saboya 4, 46010, Valencia, Spain
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