Spectrum of styrene-induced DNA adducts: the relationship to other biomarkers and prospects in human biomonitoring

An investigation of DNA damage and DNA repair in chemical carcinogenesis triggered by small-molecule xenobiotics and in cancer: Thirty years with the comet assay

In the present review we addressed the determination of DNA damage induced by small-molecule carcinogens, considered their persistence in DNA and mutagenicity in in vitro and in vivo systems over a period of 30 years. The review spans from the investigation of the role of DNA damage in the cascade of chemical carcinogenesis. In the nineties, this concept evolved into the biomonitoring studies comprising multiple biomarkers that not only reflected DNA/chromosomal damage, but also the potential of the organism for biotransformation/elimination of various xenobiotics. Since first years of the new millennium, dynamic system of DNA repair and host susceptibility factors started to appear in studies and a considerable knowledge has been accumulated on carcinogens and their role in carcinogenesis. It was understood that the final biological links bridging the arising DNA damage and cancer onset remain to be elucidated. In further years the community of scientists learnt that cancer is a multifactorial disease evolving over several decades of individual´s life. Moreover, DNA damage and DNA repair are inseparable players also in treatment of malignant diseases, but affect substantially other processes, such as degeneration. Functional monitoring of DNA repair pathways and DNA damage response may cast some light on above aspects. Very little is currently known about the relationship between telomere homeostasis and DNA damage formation and repair. DNA damage/repair in genomic and mitochondrial DNA and crosstalk between these two entities emerge as a new interesting topic.

Mutational signatures associated with exposure to carcinogenic microplastic compounds bisphenol A and styrene oxide

Microplastic pollutants in oceans and food chains are concerning to public health. Common plasticizing compounds Bisphenol-A (BPA) and Styrene-7,8-Oxide (SO) are now labeled as carcinogens. We show that BPA and SO cause deoxyribonucleic acid damage and mutagenesis in human cells, and analyze the genome-wide point mutation and genomic rearrangement patterns associated with BPA and SO exposure. A subset of the single- and doublet base substitutions shows mutagenesis near or at guanine, consistent with these compounds' preferences to form guanosine adducts. Presence of other mutational signatures suggest additional mutagenesis probably due to complex effects of BPA and SO on diverse cellular processes. Analyzing data for 19 cancer cohorts, we find that tumors of digestive and urinary organs show relatively high similarity in mutational profiles, and the burden of such mutations increases with age. Even within the same cancer type, proportions of corresponding mutational patterns vary among the cohorts from different countries, as does the amount of microplastic waste in ocean waters. BPA and SO are relatively mild mutagens, and other environmental agents can also potentially generate similar, complex mutational patterns in cancer genomes. Nonetheless, our findings call for systematic evaluation of public health consequences of microplastic exposure worldwide.

Critical review of styrene genotoxicity focused on the mutagenicity/clastogenicity literature and using current organization of economic cooperation and development guidance

Styrene is an important high production volume chemical used to manufacture polymeric products. In 2018, International Agency for Research on Cancer classified styrene as probably carcinogenic to humans; National Toxicology Program lists styrene as reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen. The genotoxicity literature for styrene and its primary metabolite, styrene 7,8-oxide (SO), begins in the 1970s. Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) recently updated most genotoxicity test guidelines, making substantial new recommendations for assay conduct and data evaluation for the standard mutagenicity/clastogenicity assays. Thus, a critical review of the in vitro and in vivo rodent mutagenicity/clastogenicity studies for styrene and SO, based on the latest OECD recommendations, is timely. This critical review considered whether a study was optimally designed, conducted, and interpreted and provides a critical assessment of the evidence for the mutagenicity/clastogenicity of styrene/SO. Information on the ability of styrene/SO to induce other types of genotoxicity endpoints is summarized but not critically reviewed. We conclude that when styrene is metabolized to SO, it can form DNA adducts, and positive in vitro mutagenicity/clastogenicity results can be obtained. SO is mutagenic in bacteria and the in vitro mouse lymphoma gene mutation assay. No rodent in vivo mutation studies were identified. SO is clastogenic in cultured mammalian cells. Although the in vitro assays gave positive responses, styrene/SO is not clastogenic/aneugenic in vivo in rodents. In addition to providing updated information for styrene, this review demonstrates the application of the new OECD guidelines for chemicals with large genetic toxicology databases where published results may or may not be reliable. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 2019. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

PM2.5 induces cell cycle arrest through regulating mTOR/P70S6K1 signaling pathway

Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) pollution has become a serious problem in China. This study aims to elucidate the toxicity mechanism of PM2.5. Protein levels were detected by western blotting and RT-qPCR, and cell cycle was detected by flow cytometry. The results showed that exposure to PM2.5 induces cell cycle arrest and downregulation of the expression of cyclin D1 protein. Moreover, the protein expression of thymidylate synthase (TS) enzyme was found to be downregulated and the mRNA expression of TS was upregulated after PM2.5 exposure. Knockout of TS gene promoted cell cycle arrest and downregulation of the expression of cyclin D1 protein after PM2.5 exposure. Our data further revealed that PM2.5 exposure downregulates the expression of TS and cyclin D1 partially through the downregulation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)/P70S6K1 signaling pathway. Thus, these findings indicate that PM2.5-induced cell cycle arrest might be due to the downregulation of mTOR/P70S6K1 signaling pathway, and thus inhibits the expression of TS protein.

Alkylating potential of styrene oxide: reactions and factors involved in the alkylation process

The chemical reactivity of styrene-7,8-oxide (SO), an alkylating agent with high affinity for the guanine–N7 position and a probable carcinogen for humans, with 4-(p-nitrobenzyl)pyridine (NBP), a trap for alkylating agents with nucleophilic characteristics similar to those of DNA bases, was investigated kinetically in water/dioxane media. UV–vis spectrophotometry and ultrafast liquid chromatography were used to monitor the reactions involved. It was found that in the alkylation process four reactions occur simultaneously: (a) the formation of a β-NBP–SO adduct through an SN2 mechanism; (b) the acid-catalyzed formation of the stable α-NBP–SO adduct through an SN2′ mechanism; (c) the base-catalyzed hydrolysis of the β-adduct, and (d) the acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of SO. At 37.5 °C and pH = 7.0 (in 7:3 water/dioxane medium), the values of the respective reaction rate constants were as follows: kalkβ = (2.1 ± 0.3) × 10–4 M–1 s–1, kalkα = (1.0 ± 0.1) × 10–4 M–1 s–1, khydAD = (3.06 ± 0.09) × 10–6 s–1, and khyd = (4.2 ± 0.9) × 10–6 s–1. These values show that, in order to determine the alkylating potential of SO, none of the four reactions involved can be neglected. Temperature and pH were found to exert a strong influence on the values of some parameters that may be useful to investigate possible chemicobiological correlations (e.g., in the pH 5.81–7.69 range, the fraction of total adducts formed increased from 24% to 90% of the initial SO, whereas the adduct lifetime of the unstable β-adduct, which gives an idea of the permanence of the adduct over time, decreased from 32358 to 13313 min). A consequence of these results is that the conclusions drawn in studies addressing alkylation reactions at temperatures and/or pH far from those of biological conditions should be considered with some reserve.

Toxicological profiles of selected synthetic cannabinoids showing high binding affinities to the cannabinoid receptor subtype CB₁

Products containing synthetic cannabinoids are consumed as a surrogate for marihuana due to their non-detectability with commonly used drug tests and their strong cannabimimetic effects. Because data concerning their toxicological properties are scarce, the cytotoxic, genotoxic, immunomodulatory, and hormonal activities of four naphthoylindole compounds (JWH-018, JWH-073, JWH-122 and JWH-210) and of one benzoylindole (AM-694) were studied in human cell lines and primary cells; tetrahydrocannabinol was included as the classical non-endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligand. All compounds induced damage to the cell membranes of buccal (TR146) and breast (MCF-7) derived cells at concentrations of ≥75-100 μM. No cytotoxic responses were seen in other assays which reflect mitochondrial damage, protein synthesis, and lysosomal activities. JWH-073 and JWH-122 induced DNA migration in buccal and liver cells (HepG2) in single cell gel electrophoresis assays, while JWH-210 was only in the latter cell line active. No estrogenic activities were detected in bone marrow cells (U2-OS), but all compounds caused anti-estrogenic effects at levels between 2.1 and 23.0 μM. Furthermore, no impact on cytokine release (i.e., on IL-10, IL-6, IL-12/23p40 and TNFα levels) was seen in LPS-stimulated human PBMCs, except with JWH-210 and JWH-122 which caused a decrease of TNFα and IL-12/23p40. All toxic effects were observed with concentrations higher than those expected in body fluids of users. Since genotoxic effects are in general linear over a wide concentration range and the exposure levels may be higher in epithelial cells than [corrected] in serum, further experimental work is required to find out if DNA damage takes place in drug users.

Mutagenicity of DNA adducts derived from ethylene oxide exposure in the pSP189 shuttle vector replicated in human Ad293 cells

Ethylene oxide (EO) is a widely used chemical intermediate also formed endogenously from ethylene metabolism. Despite conflicting epidemiological evidence, EO is classified by the IARC as a human carcinogen. The mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of EO is attributed to direct reaction with DNA and formation of multiple 2-hydroxyethyl (HE) DNA adducts. However, the actual lesions responsible for the reported mutagenicity of EO have not been established. This study used the supF mutation assay to investigate the biological relevance of low levels of EO-induced DNA adducts in human Ad293 cells, with respect to the type and level of each HE adduct present. Initial experiments were conducted using pSP189 plasmid containing up to 290 N7-HEGuanine (N7-HEG) adducts/10(6) nucleotides, which far exceeds that typically detected in human DNA. No other HE-lesions were detectable using our validated LC-MS/MS assay. Replication in cells failed to produce a statistically significant increase in relative mutation frequency, above background rates in the solvent control. Furthermore, the mutation spectrum compiled for EO-treated plasmid (10-2000muM) did not differ significantly from the spontaneous distribution, suggesting EO is not strongly mutagenic in this system. Under refined reaction conditions using higher EO concentrations capable of inducing detectable levels of N1-HEdA, O(6)-HEdG and N3-HEdU along with N7-HEG, there was a significant dose-related increase in relative mutation frequency above background (3.76- and 5.30-fold at 10 and 30mM, respectively). EO treatment appeared associated with an elevated frequency of GC-->CG mutations and the occurrence of substitutions at AT base pairs. Additionally, there was a distinct GC-->TA mutational hotspot in the 10mM EO spectrum. Overall, the results suggest a certain level of promutagenic adducts must be attained before mutations become detectable above background, indicating that N7-HEG is not a promutagenic lesion, and support a role for the minor products of DNA hydroxyethylation in the generation of base substitutions by EO.

Oxidative stress due to (R)-styrene oxide exposure and the role of antioxidants in non-Swiss albino (NSA) mice

Styrene produces lung and liver damage that may be related to oxidative stress. The purpose of this study was to investigate the toxicity of (R)-styrene oxide (R-SO), the more active enantiomeric metabolite of styrene, and the protective properties of the antioxidants glutathione (GSH), N-acetylcysteine (NAC), and 4-methoxy-L-tyrosinyl-gamma-L-glutamyl-L-cysteinyl-glycine (UPF1) against R-SO-induced toxicity in non-Swiss Albino (NSA) mice. UPF1 is a synthetic GSH analog that was shown to have 60 times the ability to scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) in comparison to GSH. R-SO toxicity to the lung was measured by elevations in the activity of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), protein concentration, and number of cells in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). Toxicity to the liver was measured by increases in serum sorbitol dehydrogenase (SDH) activity. Antioxidants were not able to decrease the adverse effects of R-SO on lung. However, NAC (200 mg/kg) ip and GSH (600 mg/kg), administered orally prior to R-SO (300 mg/kg) ip, showed significant protection against liver toxicity as measured by SDH activity. Unexpectedly, a synthetic GSH analog, UPF1 (0.8 mg/kg), administered intravenously (iv) prior to R-SO, produced a synergistic effect with regard to liver and lung toxicity. Treatment with UPF1 (0.8 mg/kg) iv every other day for 1 wk for preconditioning prior to R-SO ip did not result in any protection against liver and lung toxicity, but rather enhanced the toxicity when administered prior R-SO. The results of the present study demonstrated protection against R-SO toxicity in liver but not lung by the administration of the antioxidants NAC and GSH.

Styrene Metabolism, Genotoxicity, and Potential Carcinogenicity

This report reviews styrene biotransformation, including minor metabolic routes, and relates metabolism to the genotoxic effects and possible styrene-related carcinogenicity. Styrene is shown to require metabolic activation in order to become notably genotoxic and styrene 7,8-oxide is shown to contribute quantitatively by far the most (in humans more than 95%) to the genotoxicity of styrene, while minor ring oxidation products are also shown to contribute to local toxicities, especially in the respiratory system. Individual susceptibility depending on metabolism polymorphisms and individual DNA repair capacity as well as the dependence of the nonlinearity of the dose-response relationships in the species in question and the consequences for risk evaluation are analyzd.

Association between genetic polymorphisms in styrene-metabolizing enzymes and biomarkers in styrene-exposed workers

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in genes of styrene-metabolizing enzymes could modulate biomarker concentrations in blood or urine after exposure to styrene. Ten SNP were analyzed to study their influence on styrene-specific biomarkers in 89 workers of a fiber-reinforced plastic boat building factory. The internal styrene body burden was analyzed in post-shift blood and urine samples. External styrene exposure was measured by passive samplers. Spearman rank correlations between styrene exposure and biomarkers were calculated and distributions of biomarkers were checked for lognormality. Mixed linear models were applied to analyze the influence of genotypes and styrene exposure, on styrene in blood (Monday and Thursday post-shift) and on phenyglyoxylic acid (PGA; adjusted for day of measurement, Monday to Thursday) due to a lognormal distribution, smoking (current, not current), and use of respirators. Stratified analyzes for workers without and with different types of respirators were also performed. The models of both the subgroups revealed a significant influence dependent on the respirator type that workers used for inhalation protection. An influence of the external styrene concentration on the urinary PGA concentration was not observed. After implementation of the SNP into the model significant lower adjusted means of urinary PGA concentrations were found for GSTP1 105IleVal and CYP2E1 -71TT. For styrene levels in blood no significant effect was observed. A significant influence on styrene levels in blood was correlated with external styrene concentration only in workers without use of respirators. The effects of two SNP on urinary PGA decrease indicated a limited modulating SNP effect. The most effective prevention for styrene exposure was obtained with the wearing of respirators.

Differential gene expression by styrene in rat reproductive tissue

Styrene is an important industrial chemical that is extensively used in the production of resins, rubbers and fiberglass-reinforced plastics. Exposing male rats to high doses of styrene may produce sperm abnormalities or infertility. To determine the mechanism underlying styrene-mediated toxicity in male reproductive organs, a reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) technology was employed using annealing control primers (ACPs) to identify the differentially expressed genes following styrene treatment in isolated testis of male rats. By using 120 ACPs, a total of 6 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) of genes were differentially expressed in styrene-treated rats, as compared to untreated, which were cloned and sequenced. Of the genes analyzed, 5 genes (testis-specific expressed gene 101, protein kinase C, H+-ATPase isoform 2, peroxiredoxin 1, and aquaporin 9) were inducible and one gene expression (clusterin) was significantly suppressed by styrene. Regulation of each gene by styrene was confirmed by RT-PCR. It was shown that styrene decreased clusterin expression in a concentration-dependent manner and these effects occurred mainly in testis. Taken together, these results indicate that repression of clusterin gene expression by styrene may play an important role in styrene-mediated toxicities.

7-Alkylguanine adduct levels in urine, lungs and liver of mice exposed to styrene by inhalation

This study describes urinary excretion of two nucleobase adducts derived from styrene 7,8-oxide (SO), i.e., 7-(2-hydroxy-1-phenylethyl)guanine (N7alphaG) and 7-(2-hydroxy-2-phenylethyl)guanine (N7betaG), as well as a formation of N7-SO-guanine adducts in lungs and liver of two month old male NMRI mice exposed to styrene by inhalation in a 3-week subacute study. Strikingly higher excretion of both isomeric nucleobase adducts in the first day of exposure was recorded, while the daily excretion of nucleobase adducts in following time intervals reached the steady-state level at 4.32+1.14 and 6.91+1.17 pmol/animal for lower and higher styrene exposure, respectively. beta-SO-guanine DNA adducts in lungs increased with exposure in a linear way (F=13.7 for linearity and 0.17 for non-linearity, respectively), reaching at the 21st day the level of 23.0 adducts/10(8) normal nucleotides, i.e., 0.74 fmol/microg DNA of 7-alkylguanine DNA adducts for the concentration of 1500 mg/m3, while no 7-SO-guanine DNA adducts were detected in the liver after 21 days of inhalation exposure to both of styrene concentrations. A comparison of 7-alkylguanines excreted in urine with 7-SO-guanines in lungs (after correction for depurination and for missing alpha-isomers) revealed that persisting 7-SO-guanine DNA adducts in lungs account for about 0.5% of the total alkylation at N7 of guanine. The total styrene-specific 7-guanine alkylation accounts for about 1.0x10(-5)% of the total styrene uptake, while N1-adenine alkylation contributes to this percentage only negligibly.

Analysis of oxidative stress in SK-N-MC neurons exposed to styrene-7,8-oxide

Styrene-7,8-oxide (SO) is the main metabolite of styrene, a neurotoxic volatile organic compound used industrially. Here we report the novel observation that several markers of oxidative stress were affected in SK-N-MC cells exposed for 16 h to concentrations of SO that induce apoptotic cell death. The production of Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances (TBARS), rose from 69.1 +/- 15.7 nmol/g protein (control) to 119.3 +/- 39.2 and 102.0 +/- 17.3 nmol/g protein after exposure to 0.3 and 1 mM SO, respectively. Carbonyl group levels were significantly enhanced by SO at both concentrations. The lower dose also decreased sulphydryl groups. SO caused a marked oxidative DNA damage, as shown by a fivefold increase in 8-hydroxy-2(')-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG). In addition, SO exposure resulted in alterations of scavenging abilities, given the reduction of both glutathione (GSH) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activity. Induction of expression of the oxidative stress response gene heme-oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and an increased HO-1 activity were also observed. These data provide compelling evidence that oxidative stress significantly contributes to SO toxicity in neuronal cells.

Review of the genotoxicity of styrene in humans

Styrene (CAS No. 100-42-5) is an important industrial chemical for which positive results have been reported in in vitro and in vivo genotoxicity assays. Styrene-exposed workers have been studied extensively over two decades for the induction of various types of genotoxic effects. The outcomes of these studies have been conflicting, and where positive responses have been reported, it has proved difficult to demonstrate clear relationships between levels of damage reported and exposure levels. In this review, we have assessed studies addressing mutagenicity (chromosome aberrations, micronuclei and gene mutations) and other endpoints (sister chromatid exchanges, DNA breaks and DNA adducts) using criteria derived from the IPCS guidelines for the conduct of human biomonitoring studies. Based on the re-evaluated outcomes, the data are not convincing that styrene induces gene mutations. The evidence for induction of clastogenicity in occupationally exposed workers is less clear, with a predominant lack of induction of micronuclei in different studies, but conflicting responses in chromosome aberration assays. The results of numerous studies on sister chromatid exchanges do not provide evidence of a clear positive response, despite these being induced in animals exposed to styrene at high concentrations. However, there is evidence that both DNA adducts and DNA single strand breaks are induced in styrene workers. These types of damage are considered indicative of exposure of the target cells and interaction with cellular DNA but do not necessarily result in heritable changes. There is evidence that the metabolism of styrene in humans is affected by genetic polymorphisms of metabolizing genes and that these polymorphisms affect the outcome of in vitro mutagenicity studies on styrene. Therefore, studies that have addressed the potential of this factor to affect in vivo responses were considered. To date, there are no consistent relationships between genetic polymorphisms and induction of genotoxicity by styrene in humans, but further work is warranted on larger samples. The analyses of individual studies, together with a consideration of dose-response relationships and the lack of a common profile of positive responses for the various endpoints in different studies, provide no clear evidence that styrene exposure in workers results in detectable levels of mutagenic damage. However, evidence of exposure to genotoxic metabolites is demonstrated by the formation of DNA adducts and strand breaks.

Genotoxicity sensor response correlated with DNA nucleobase damage rates measured by LC-MS

Responses from "reagentless" DNA-based electrochemical toxicity sensors to DNA alkylating agents styrene oxide (SO), diepoxybutane (DEB), and methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) were compared to formation rates of total alkylated nucleobases in DNA measured by LC-UV-MS. Sensors utilized a catalytic metallopolymer in DNA films previously exposed to the damage agents. To achieve adequate sensitivity, LC-UV-MS analyses were done on DNA in solution reacted with the damage agents, and subsequently hydrolyzed to nucleosides with enzymes. Sensor response correlated well with nucleobase-adduct formation rates obtained by the molecule-specific analyses. Results confirm that the metallopolymer-DNA film sensors can be used to estimate relative DNA damage rates from nucleobase adduct-forming chemicals. Results from both methods correlated well with animal genotoxicity as estimated by TDL(o) values, the lowest dose producing carcinogenicity, in mice and rats. These sensors should be useful for rapid, inexpensive screening of moderately and severely genotoxic new chemicals.

Response of human cord blood cells to styrene exposure: evaluation of its effects on apoptosis and gene expression by genomic technology

Styrene is one of the most important monomers produced worldwide, and it finds major use in the production of polystyrene, acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene resins and unsaturated polystyrene resins. Epidemiological studies on styrene showed that the malignancies observed most frequently in humans after exposure are related to the lymphatic and haemopoietic system. IARC classified styrene a possible carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B). In this study, we evaluated the effect of styrene on gene expression profiles of human cord blood cells, as well as its activity on the apoptosis and bcl-2 related protein expression. Data demonstrated that, after 24 and 48 h of exposure, styrene (800 microM) induced an increase in the necrosis of mononuclear cord blood cells, whereas it did not cause any increase in the apoptotic process. Western blot analysis revealed a modified expression of Bax, BCl-2, c-Jun, c-Fos and Raf-1 proteins in the human cord blood cells after direct exposure to styrene, whereas p53 expression did not change. Furthermore, Macroarray analysis showed that styrene changed cord blood gene expression, inducing up-regulation of monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1), and down-regulation of CC chemokine receptor type 1 (CCR-1) and SLP-76 tyrosine-phosphoprotein.

The role of various biomarkers in the evaluation of styrene genotoxicity

We evaluated our data on the occupational exposure to styrene in lamination workers. The battery of parameters included markers of external and internal exposure and biomarkers of biological effects and susceptibility. DNA repair capacities have been determined in both exposed and control groups. Styrene workplace concentration significantly correlated with styrene concentration in blood, exhaled air and urinary mandelic acid. Haemoglobin and O(6)-styrene oxide (SO)-guanine DNA adducts were significantly higher in exposed subjects as compared to controls and correlated with exposure parameters. In styrene-exposed workers 1-SO-adenine DNA adducts were detected (2.6 per 10(9) dNp), while in controls these adducts were below the detection limit. 1-SO-adenine adduct levels were affected by both acute and cumulative exposure (P=0.001, F=86.0 and P=0.017, F=59.0, respectively) and associated with cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) polymorphisms (R(2)=0.442). Mutant frequencies (MF) at the hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT) locus appeared to accumulate with exposure over time and were associated with glutathione S-transferase P1 (GSTP1) polymorphism. DNA repair capacity increased with the exposure, except for the group exposed to the highest styrene concentration. In this particular group, increased DNA repair capacity to remove oxidative DNA damage was found.

Sperm-FISH analysis and human monitoring: a study on workers occupationally exposed to styrene

Occupational exposure to styrene, a chemical extensively used worldwide, is under investigation for possible detrimental effects on human health, including male reproductive capacity. Aneuploidy in germ cells is the main cause of infertility, abortions and congenital diseases. Fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH), is the most efficient cytogenetic molecular technique to date to analyse numerical alterations of chromosomes in spermatozoa. We investigated the frequencies of aneuploidy and diploidy in individuals occupationally exposed to styrene and in healthy unexposed controls. We performed multicolour FISH, using DNA probes specific for the centromeric regions of sex chromosomes and chromosome 2, in decondensed sperm nuclei of samples with normal semen parameters for a total of 18 styrene-exposed subjects and 13 unexposed controls of the same age range. Exposed individuals had worked for at least 2 years during the last 5 years, and continuously for 6 months, in factories producing reinforced plastics. The incidence of aneuploidy and diploidy for the tested chromosomes did not show a statistically significant difference between workers and controls. The exposure to styrene was associated with increased frequencies of nullisomy for sex chromosomes in the group of non-smokers, although only a limited number of subjects belonged to this sub-group. Considering the whole study population, age was associated with an increased frequency of XX disomy, whereas smoking was associated with meiosis II non-disjunction of sex chromosomes. Overall, confounding factors appeared to exert a more important effect than exposure to styrene on numerical chromosome alterations in sperm nuclei of subjects selected for normal semen parameters.

Effect of epoxide hydrolase and glutathione S-tranferase genotypes on the induction of micronuclei and DNA damage by styrene-7,8-oxide in vitro

Styrene is one of the most important organic chemicals used worldwide. Its main metabolite, styrene-7,8-oxide (SO), is considered responsible for the genotoxic effects associated with exposure to styrene. SO is detoxified by hydrolysis catalyzed by epoxide hydrolase (EH), or, to a minor extent, by conjugation mediated by glutathione S-transferases (GSTs). The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether EH (exons 3 and 4), GSTP1 (exons 5 and 6), GSTM1 and GSTT1 polymorphisms have any influence on the genotoxicity of SO in human leukocytes. Peripheral leukocytes from 30 healthy donors were exposed to SO (50 and 200 micro M) and genotoxicity was evaluated by means of the micronucleus (MN) test and alkaline comet assay, using 1% DMSO as solvent control. When EH genotypes were classified in low, medium, and high with respect to the expected EH activity, an increase in induced comet tail length was observed with decreasing EH activity in SO-exposed cells. An increase was seen in induced MN frequency in EH low-activity donors. These findings are consistent with the detoxifying activity of this enzyme. In addition, increases in MN frequencies for GSTP1 *A/*B and *A/*C genotypes with regard to the wild-type homozygous *A/*A genotype were detected. This may be due to a low detoxifying activity as a consequence of altered SO affinity of the variant protein, but must be confirmed using homozygote variant individuals, not included in this study. No clear results were obtained for GSTM1 or GSTT1 genotypes, even when performing the analysis after grouping individuals with the same expected EH activity, probably due to the minor role that glutathione conjugation plays in styrene metabolism. The present in vitro findings using human leukocytes suggest that polymorphisms in EH, and, to a lesser extent, in GSTP1, may influence induction of cytogenetic and DNA damage by SO.

Genetic polymorphism of drug-metabolizing enzymes and styrene-induced DNA damage

A cross-sectional study was carried out on 48 workers exposed to styrene and 14 unexposed healthy controls in order to investigate the genotoxic potential of styrene exposure. DNA damage was assessed in peripheral blood leukocytes (WBCs) by the comet assay. Polymorphisms in glutathione S-transferase genes (GSTM1, GSTT1, GSTP1) and the gene encoding microsomal epoxide hydrolase (EPHX) were characterized to assess their possible modifying role in styrene metabolism and subsequent DNA damage. Exposed workers showed significantly higher levels of DNA damage compared to controls. Among workers, the GSTM1 and GSTT1 polymorphisms significantly affected comet parameters. Subjects bearing a GSTM1pos genotype showed a significantly higher proportion of damaged nuclei compared to people lacking GSTM1-1 expression (GSTM1null), whereas GSTT1pos workers showed significantly lower DNA damage than GSTT1null individuals. Styrene-7,8-oxide (SO)-induced DNA damage was assessed in vitro in WBCs isolated from the healthy controls. A clear dose-response relationship at micromolar doses of SO was found for the whole group. WBCs collected from subjects bearing the homozygous wildtype GSTP1 genotype showed a significant protection compared to cells from subjects bearing at least one GSTP1 variant allele. The field survey confirms that styrene exposure is associated with increased DNA damage and indicates a modulating role for GSTM1 and GSTT1 genotypes. In vitro experiments suggest that the extent of SO-induced DNA strand breaks depends, at least in part, on interindividual differences in GSH-conjugation capabilities.

Assessment of sperm DNA integrity in workers exposed to styrene

BACKGROUND

Occupational exposure to toxic agents may cause infertility, congenital anomalies or death in offspring, but few studies have evaluated DNA integrity in germ cells of male workers. We investigated sperm DNA integrity in individuals occupationally exposed to styrene.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Semen samples were obtained from 46 male workers exposed to styrene and 27 unexposed controls (age range 18-45 years). Exposed individuals had worked for at least 2 years in the last 5 years and continuously for 6 months in factories producing reinforced plastics. The Comet assay was performed to evaluate DNA integrity in sperm, as well as semen quality analysis to assess sperm concentration and morphology. There were no differences in the results of the standard semen analysis between exposed subjects and the reference group. However, we found a significant difference (P < 0.001) in sperm DNA damage by the Comet assay between exposed subjects and the reference group.

CONCLUSIONS

The Comet assay proved to be sensitive in detecting an alteration in DNA integrity in germ cells of workers exposed to styrene. This finding contributes towards the understanding of the importance of male occupational exposure within the context of genetic risk assessment in humans.