The relationship between repeated sprint ability and the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems

Testing in Intermittent Sports-Importance for Training and Performance Optimization in Adult Athletes

ABSTRACT

Performance in intermittent sports relies on the interplay between multiple physiological systems determining the capacity to perform short explosive efforts as well as repeated intense actions with limited recovery over the course of an entire game. Testing should reflect these demands to allow for sport- and position-specific capacity analyses that eventually may translate into optimized training and improved performance. This may include individual load management and optimized training prescription, intensity targeting for specific positions or individual athletes, as well as benchmarking for monitoring of training progression and enhanced engagement of athletes. This review provides an overview of available tests in different exercise domains identified as relevant (from assessment of single explosive actions to intermittent endurance capacity), forming the basis for recommendations on how to compose a comprehensive yet feasible test battery that may be integrated into the seasonal competition and training plan. The test procedures should cover the performance spectrum of relevance for the individual athlete-also in team sports to account for positional differences. We emphasize the benefits of sport-specific tests, highlight parameters of importance for test standardization, and discuss how the applied test battery may be supplemented with secondary tests directed toward specific energy systems to allow for more in-depth analyses when required (e.g., in terms of an underperforming athlete). The synergy between testing and tracking of match performance (utilizing time-motion or global positioning systems) is highlighted, and although tracking cannot substitute for testing, combining the tools may provide a comprehensive overview of the physiological demands and performance during competition contextualized to the athletes' maximal exercise capacity.

The contribution of energy systems during 30-second lower body Wingate anaerobic test in combat sports athletes: Intermittent versus single forms and gender comparison

Combat sports, encompassing a range of activities from striking and grappling to mixed and weapon-based disciplines, have witnessed a surge in popularity worldwide. These sports are demanding, requiring athletes to harness energy from different metabolic pathways to perform short, high-intensity activities interspersed with periods of lower intensity. While it is established that the anaerobic alactic (ATP-PC) and anaerobic lactic systems are pivotal for high-intensity training sessions typical in combat sports, the precise contribution of these systems, particularly in varied training modalities such as single (SMT) and intermittent (IST) forms of the 30-second Wingate test, remains inadequately explored. This study aims at comparing performance outputs, physiological responses and gender differences during the SMT and IST forms of the 30-second Wingate test. Thirty-three highly trained combat sports athletes (17 women, 16 men; 10 boxing, 8 wrestling, 8 taekwondo and 7 karate) randomly performed SMT and IST. The IST consisted of three 10-second all-out attempts separated by 30 seconds of passive recovery, whereas the SMT was a single 30-second maximal effort. Resting, exercise and post-exercise oxygen uptake and peak blood lactate value were used to determine the metabolic energy demands via the PCr-LA-O2 method. The findings showed that total metabolic energy expenditure (TEE), ATP-PCr system contribution and the output of mechanical variables were higher in the IST than in the SMT form (all p<0.001). In contrast, the contribution of glycolytic and oxidative systems was higher in the SMT form (all p<0.001). However, exercise form and gender interaction were not significant (p>0.05). In combat sports, performance is not only determined by physiological and technical skills but also by metabolic energy input and efficiency. Therefore, our results can provide a comparison regarding the effects of exercise type and gender on metabolic energy metabolism to design the training of combat sports athletes.

The physiology of ice hockey performance: An update

Ice hockey is an intense team sport characterized by repeated bursts of fast-paced skating, rapid changes in speed and direction and frequent physical encounters. These are performed in on-ice shifts of ~30-80 s interspersed with longer sequences of passive recovery, resulting in about 15-25 min on-ice time per player. Nearly 50% of the distance is covered at high-intensity skating speeds and with an accentuated intense activity pattern in forwards compared to defensemen. During ice hockey match-play, both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems are significantly challenged, with the heart rate increasing toward maximum levels during each shift, and with great reliance on both glycolytic and phosphagen ATP provision. The high-intensity activity pattern favors muscle glycogen as fuel, leading to pronounced reductions despite the relatively brief playing time, including severe depletion of a substantial proportion of individual fast- and slow-twitch fibers. Player-tracking suggests that the ability to perform high-intensity skating is compromised in the final stages of a game, which is supported by post-game reductions in repeated-sprint ability. Muscle glycogen degradation, in particular in individual fibers, as well as potential dehydration and hyperthermia, may be prime candidates implicated in exacerbated fatigue during the final stages of a game, whereas multiple factors likely interact to impair exercise tolerance during each shift. This includes pronounced PCr degradation, with potential inadequate resynthesis in a proportion of fast-twitch fibers in situations of repeated intense actions. Finally, the recovery pattern is inadequately described, but seems less long-lasting than in other team sports.

Physical Fitness Tests as Predictors of High-Intensity Running Performance in Rugby

Understanding the physical fitness elements that influence high-intensity running ability during rugby matches is crucial for optimizing player performance and developing effective training strategies. In this study, we aimed to investigate the relationships between various physical fitness components and high-intensity running ability in rugby. For this purpose, 60 Japanese university rugby players were randomized into four groups and two matches were played. The participants were monitored in two matches, and their running abilities were assessed using GPS sensors. The running time was divided into three running velocity categories: distance run at ≤5.4 km/h (low-intensity running); distance run at 5.5~17.9 km/h (medium-intensity running), and distance run at ≥18.0 km/h ≤(high-intensity running) and backs and forwards were evaluated separately. To determine which physical fitness test is more predictive of performance, we decided to correlate several physical test performances with the running time intensities during the matches. Independently of the position, the high-intensity running time correlated with the repeated sprint ability (RSA) and the 40 m sprint speed. The results suggest that RSA measured in the field is the most important high-intensity running ability predictor during a match for both positions.

The Acute Demands of Repeated-Sprint Training on Physiological, Neuromuscular, Perceptual and Performance Outcomes in Team Sport Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Repeated-sprint training (RST) involves maximal-effort, short-duration sprints (≤ 10 s) interspersed with brief recovery periods (≤ 60 s). Knowledge about the acute demands of RST and the influence of programming variables has implications for training prescription.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the physiological, neuromuscular, perceptual and performance demands of RST, while also examining the moderating effects of programming variables (sprint modality, number of repetitions per set, sprint repetition distance, inter-repetition rest modality and inter-repetition rest duration) on these outcomes.

METHODS

The databases Pubmed, SPORTDiscus, MEDLINE and Scopus were searched for original research articles investigating overground running RST in team sport athletes ≥ 16 years. Eligible data were analysed using multi-level mixed effects meta-analysis, with meta-regression performed on outcomes with ~ 50 samples (10 per moderator) to examine the influence of programming factors. Effects were evaluated based on coverage of their confidence (compatibility) limits (CL) against elected thresholds of practical importance.

RESULTS

From 908 data samples nested within 176 studies eligible for meta-analysis, the pooled effects (± 90% CL) of RST were as follows: average heart rate (HRavg) of 163 ± 9 bpm, peak heart rate (HRpeak) of 182 ± 3 bpm, average oxygen consumption of 42.4 ± 10.1 mL·kg-1·min-1, end-set blood lactate concentration (B[La]) of 10.7 ± 0.6 mmol·L-1, deciMax session ratings of perceived exertion (sRPE) of 6.5 ± 0.5 au, average sprint time (Savg) of 5.57 ± 0.26 s, best sprint time (Sbest) of 5.52 ± 0.27 s and percentage sprint decrement (Sdec) of 5.0 ± 0.3%. When compared with a reference protocol of 6 × 30 m straight-line sprints with 20 s passive inter-repetition rest, shuttle-based sprints were associated with a substantial increase in repetition time (Savg: 1.42 ± 0.11 s, Sbest: 1.55 ± 0.13 s), whereas the effect on sRPE was trivial (0.6 ± 0.9 au). Performing two more repetitions per set had a trivial effect on HRpeak (0.8 ± 1.0 bpm), B[La] (0.3 ± 0.2 mmol·L-1), sRPE (0.2 ± 0.2 au), Savg (0.01 ± 0.03) and Sdec (0.4; ± 0.2%). Sprinting 10 m further per repetition was associated with a substantial increase in B[La] (2.7; ± 0.7 mmol·L-1) and Sdec (1.7 ± 0.4%), whereas the effect on sRPE was trivial (0.7 ± 0.6). Resting for 10 s longer between repetitions was associated with a substantial reduction in B[La] (-1.1 ± 0.5 mmol·L-1), Savg (-0.09 ± 0.06 s) and Sdec (-1.4 ± 0.4%), while the effects on HRpeak (-0.7 ± 1.8 bpm) and sRPE (-0.5 ± 0.5 au) were trivial. All other moderating effects were compatible with both trivial and substantial effects [i.e. equal coverage of the confidence interval (CI) across a trivial and a substantial region in only one direction], or inconclusive (i.e. the CI spanned across substantial and trivial regions in both positive and negative directions).

CONCLUSIONS

The physiological, neuromuscular, perceptual and performance demands of RST are substantial, with some of these outcomes moderated by the manipulation of programming variables. To amplify physiological demands and performance decrement, longer sprint distances (> 30 m) and shorter, inter-repetition rest (≤ 20 s) are recommended. Alternatively, to mitigate fatigue and enhance acute sprint performance, shorter sprint distances (e.g. 15-25 m) with longer, passive inter-repetition rest (≥ 30 s) are recommended.

Responses of soccer players performing repeated maximal efforts in simulated conditions of the FIFA World Cup Qatar 2022: A holistic approach

This study aimed to assess the capacity for repeated maximal effort (RME) of soccer players in the thermo-natural conditions (NC) and in simulated conditions for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar (QSC). Twenty-four semi-professional soccer players participated in the study. The exercise test consisted of ten 6-second maximal efforts on a cycloergometer. A 90-second passive rest interval was used. The test was performed in a Weiss Technik WK-26 climate test chamber in two different conditions: 1) thermo-neutral conditions (NC-20.5°C; 58.7% humidity); and 2) simulated conditions for the 2022 World Cup in Qatar (QSC-28.5 ± 1.92°C; 58.7 ± 8.64% humidity). Power-related, physiological, psychomotor, blood, and electrolyte variables were recorded. Results showed that (1) players achieved higher peak power (max 1607,46 ± 192,70 [W] - 3rd rep), needed less time to peak power (min 0,95 ± 0,27 [s] - 3rd rep), and had a higher fatigue slope (max 218,67 ± 59,64 [W/sek] - 7th rep) in QSC than in NC (in each repetition of study protocol); (2) between the 1st repetition and subsequent repetitions a number of significants in among physiological, blood-related, and electrolyte variables were noted, but their direction was similar in both simulated conditions (e.g. V'O2/kg 37,59 ± 3,96 vs 37,95 ± 3,17 [ml/min/kg] - 3rd rep, LAC 13,16 ± 2,61 vs 14,18 ± 3,13 [mg/dl] - 10th rep or K 4,54 ± 0,29 vs 4,79 ± 0,36 [mmol/l] - 2nd rep when compare QCS and NC respectively); (3) an 8°C of temperature difference between the climatic conditions did not significantly affect the soccer players' physical and physiological responses in RME. The study results can be used in the design of training programs aimed to increase players' physiological adaptations by simulating soccer-specific conditions of play in terms of anaerobic capacity, in particular, repetitive maximal efforts. These findings will be useful during the upcoming 2022 World Cup in Qatar and in locations where high ambient temperatures are customary.

Effect of Computational Method on Accumulated O2 Deficit

The aim of this study was to examine how relationships between exercise intensity and the rate of energy release established in different ways, affect the calculated O2 deficit accumulated during strenuous exercise. Aerobic energy release is readily measured by the O2 uptake, while anaerobic energy release is by definition independent of O2. The latter is not easily measured during strenuous exercise, but it can be estimated using the accumulated O2 deficit principle. We have calculated it using nine different approaches. Thirteen moderately trained persons (three women) volunteered to serve as subjects for cycle ergometry. Their maximal O2 uptake was 2.9 ± 0.6 mmol s−1 (x̄ ± s; 3.9 ± 0.8 LSTPD min−1). Our reference method (M0) is based on measuring the steady state O2 uptake at the end of at least ten bouts of 10 min of exercise at constant intensity, varying between 30 and 40% of that corresponding to the maximal O2 uptake and up to a power &gt;90% of the maximal O2 uptake, which is a rather time-consuming method. The outcomes of eight different simpler approaches have been compared with those of the reference method. The main result is that the accumulated O2 deficit calculated depends a great deal on the relationship used to calculate it. A protocol of stepwise increases in exercise intensity every 4 min appeared to work well. A gross efficiency method showed the poorest performance. Another important result is that at constant power the O2 uptake continued to increase beyond 4 min of exercise at all powers examined, also at powers well-below those corresponding to the lactate threshold. Finally, the O2 uptake during loadless pedaling was considerably higher than resting O2 uptake, and it appeared to follow a cubic function of the pedaling frequency. In conclusion, to obtain reliable values of the anaerobic energy release using the accumulated O2 deficit principle, reliable relationships between exercise intensity and O2 demand must be established.

Is Ischemic Preconditioning Intervention Occlusion-Dependent to Enhance Resistance Exercise Performance?

ABSTRACT

de Souza, HLR, Arriel, RA, Hohl, R, da Mota, GR, and Marocolo, M. Is ischemic preconditioning intervention occlusion-dependent to enhance resistance exercise performance? J Strength Cond Res 35(10): 2706-2712, 2021-Ischemic preconditioning is a rising technique with potential to improve performance. Currently, its effects are still controversial, and a placebo effect seems to have a role. In this sense, this study evaluated the effect of high-pressure (HP) and low-pressure (LP) cuffing on resistance exercise performance during repeated 5-day intervention. Twenty healthy trained men (24.0 ± 4.4 years; 80.1 ± 12.2 kg; and 176.9 ± 6.6 cm) performed a 1 repetition maximum (1RM) test before interventions. Maximal isometric force test, number of repetitions (75% 1RM), total workload (sets × reps × load), fatigue index (FI) ([set 1 - set 3]/set 1 × 100), and perceived scales were assessed during knee extension preceded by HP (3 × 5-minute unilateral leg occlusion at 50 mm Hg above systolic blood pressure), LP (3 × 5-minute unilateral leg occlusion at 20 mm Hg), or control ([CON] 30-minute resting). The main effect of cuff intervention was significant for total workload (F(1,16) = 4.2, p = 0.03) after adjusting for baseline (analysis of covariance). Adjusted means (confidence interval) and effect sizes (ES) indicate that HP (1778 kg [1,613-1944]; ES: 0.29) and LP (1761 kg [1,590-1932]; ES: 0.34) significantly increased total workload compared with CON (1,452 kg [1,262-1,643]; ES: 0.17). Finally, isometric force and FI were similar for all conditions (HP, LP, and CON) with no difference from baseline performance. In conclusion, the short-term (5-day) intervention of HP and LP cuffing increases the total workload. This effect in muscle endurance performance is nondependent of blood flow occlusion, since LP is not able to obstruct arterial blood flow. A likely motivational effect cannot be ruled out.

Relationships Between Measures of Functional and Isometric Lower Body Strength, Aerobic Capacity, Anaerobic Power, Sprint and Countermovement Jump Performance in Professional Soccer Players

The purpose of this study was to assess a wide range of physiological and performance variables and investigate whether and to what extent these variables are associated with each other in soccer. Twenty-five male soccer players (25.1 ± 4.56 years; body mass, 75.2 ± 5.92 kg; body height, 180.6 ± 5.45 cm) performed: 5- and 30-m sprints (T5m and T30m, respectively), 1-repetition-maximum (1RM) half squat, maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) of the knee extensors, countermovement jump (CMJ) to obtain vertical jump height (CMJ_height) and power output (CMJ_power), the 10-s Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT) to obtain peak power (P_max), and the 20-m multi-stage shuttle run test (MST) to evaluate aerobic capacity. 1RM, MVIC, and P_max were normalized to body mass. Large negative correlations were found between sprint times and 1RM half back squat/BM (r = -0.510 to -0.570, r² = 0.260–0.325, both p < 0.01) and P_max/BM (r = -0.501, r² = 0.251, p < 0.01). T30m most strongly and negatively correlated with CMJ_height (r = -0.744, r² = 0.554, p < 0.001). WAnT-determined P_max showed a very large correlation between absolute P_max and knee-extensor MVIC (r = 0.827, r² = 0.684, p < 0.001) and large correlations between absolute P_max and 1RM half squat (r = 0.674, r² = 0.454, p < 0.001) and CMJ_power (r = 0.579, r² = 0.335, p < 0.01). We also identified a large inverse relationship between CMJ_height and T30m (r = -0.744, r² = 0.554, p < 0.001) and large positive correlation between CMJ_height and MVIC/BM (r = 0.702, p < 0.001). The results demonstrate that elite soccer players with greater lower body strength (quantified by the MVIC of the knee extensor and the 1RM half squat) show better sprint and CMJ performance, suggesting the incorporation of soccer-specific resistance training to develop lower body musculature and therefore maximize sprinting ability. The higher correlation coefficients found between T30m and the physiological and athletic measures compared with T5m promote the use of this sprint distance when assessing performance. The use of relative measures (normalized to body mass) is advisable when comparing strength variables with sprint and CMJ performance or anaerobic power. Considering the correlations of WAnT-determined P_max versus CMJ_power, coaches should administer tests that assess jumping and linear sprint performance rather than the cycling-specific WAnT.

Wales Anaerobic Test: Reliability and Fitness Profiles of International Rugby Union Players

Beard, A, Ashby, J, Chambers, R, Millet, GP, and Brocherie, F. Wales Anaerobic Test (WAT): Reliability and fitness profiles of international rugby union players. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2019-To provide strength and conditioning coaches a practical and evidence-based test for repeated-sprint ability (RSA) in rugby union players, this study assessed the relative and absolute test-retest reliability of the Wales Anaerobic Test (WAT) and its position-specific association with other fitness performance indices. Thirty-four players (forwards: n = 19; backs: n = 15) of the Welsh rugby union male senior national team performed the WAT (10 × 50-m distance, 25-30 seconds of passive recovery) twice within 4 days. Time for each repetition was recorded, with the best (WATBest) and total time (WATTT) retained for analysis. Relative (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC]) and absolute (SEM) reliability of the WAT indices were quantified. Furthermore, association (Pearson's product-moment correlations and stepwise backward elimination procedure) with other fitness performance indices (10- and 40-m sprinting times, 30-15 intermittent fitness test [30-15IFT] and the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 2 [YYIR2]) was investigated. Pooled values revealed "moderate" to "high" ICCs for WATBest (ICC = 0.89, p = 0.626) and WATTT (ICC = 0.95, p = 0.342). Good test sensitivity was reported for forwards and backs' WATTT (p > 0.101). Both WATBest and WATTT correlated with 10-m and 40-m sprinting times (r > 0.69, p < 0.001) as well as with 30-15IFT (r < -0.77, p < 0.001) and YYIR2 (r < -0.68, p < 0.001) for pooled values. The WAT proved to be a reliable and sensitive test to assess the rugby union specific RSA-related fitness of international players.

Progressive decrease in leg-power performance during a fatiguing badminton field test

[Purpose] This study aimed to evaluate the changes in leg-power generation that accompany competitive badminton, as simulated in a badminton field test (FT). [Participants and Methods] Fifteen male badminton players with 1–2 years of experience performed five repetitions of an FT involving rapid and randomly assigned shuttle-run movements between markers distributed around a badminton court. Repetitions were separated by a 1-minute rest period. Peak mechanical power, obtained from the serial vertical jump tests, was used to estimate fatigue and performance reduction. [Results] Decreases in distance and time were significantly different in each of the five FT repetitions while maintaining the same speed for the condition. The peak mechanical power and fatigue index significantly declined. The reduction in the peak mechanical power percentage (11.78–35.49%) was in the acceptable peak mechanical power range for each FT set. These results were confirmed by the significant increase in the participants’ blood lactate concentration levels, the rating of perceived exertion, and heart rate. [Conclusion] Leg-power generation could gradually be decreased in badminton competition as indicated by a badminton field test.

Repeated Linear and Quadrangular Sprint as a Function of Anaerobic Power

Almansba, R, Boucher, VG, Parent, AA, and Comtois, AS. Repeated linear and quadrangular sprint as a function of anaerobic power. J Strength Cond Res 33(8): 2177-2184, 2019-This investigation aims to study in U17 soccer players the relationships among performance indices of linear or quadrangular (square shape) repeated-sprint bouts (RSBs) and leg muscular power measured with the Wingate test and the squat jump. Seventeen athletes were recruited. Participants were 16 ± 0.35 years old and had a body mass of 66.5 ± 8.69 kg and a height of 175 ± 0.05 cm. All participants performed linear or quadrangular RSBs, the Wingate test, and a vertical jump test. The mean fast linear sprint time was strongly correlated (p < 0.01) with the force and power measured with the vertical jump test (r = -0.68 and -0.75, respectively), whereas the mean linear RSB was weakly correlated with the peak power and fatigue index measured by the Wingate test (r = -0.54 and -0.56, respectively). There was a correlation between quadrangular RSBs performance indices and both Wingate and vertical jump parameters. In addition, there were no correlations (p > 0.05) between indices of the linear RSBs (decrement index, average, and fastest times) and quadrangular RSBs. Moreover, physiological and perceptual responses were significantly higher (p < 0.01) with quadrangular RSBs compared with linear RSBs. These results indicate that the Wingate test and the vertical jump test can be used as a substitute for repeated-sprint performance time. Finally, however, the repeated sprints with or without direction changes are 2 different motor abilities that should be trained independently of one another.

Multiple Repeated Sprint Ability Test for Badminton Players Involving Four Changes of Direction: Validity and Reliability (Part 1)

Phomsoupha, M, Berger, Q, and Laffaye, G. Multiple repeated sprint ability test for badminton players involving four changes of direction: validity and reliability (part 1). J Strength Cond Res 32(2): 423-431, 2018-The purpose of this study was: (a) to develop a new sport-specific, repeated-sprint ability test involving 4 changes of direction, namely, the multiple repeated sprint ability (MRSAB) test for badminton players; (b) to determine its validity by comparing the results of 5 different skill levels; and (c) to assess the link between the new test and neuromuscular lower limb and physiological variables. For this purpose, 42 participants were separated into 5 groups to perform the MRSAB test at the same time of day, on 2 occasions, separated by at least 48 hours. The MRSAB test consisted of 2 repetitions of 4 movements (4 × 3 m) separated by 30 seconds of passive recovery. This pattern was repeated 10 times. The best time (BT), mean time (MT), and fatigue index (FI) were measured. Heart rate and blood lactate concentration were also recorded to determine the participants' physiological responses to the test. The results show that the MRSAB test is valid, because it differentiates between the 5 skill levels for BT, MT and FI and offers a reliable method (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.95 for BT and MT) for testing badminton players, with no differences between the sessions (p > 0.05). Moreover, the link between MT and neuromuscular variables, such as jump height in squats and countermovements (r = -0.55 and -0.60, respectively) and with V[Combining Dot Above]O2max (r = -0.92) reveals that this test uses a combination of the anaerobic and aerobic systems; thus, it can be used by trainers either to improve movement ability or increase these physical qualities.

The Relationship Between Maximal Aerobic Power and Recovery in Elite Ice Hockey Players During a Simulated Game

Steeves, D and Campagna, P. The relationship between maximal aerobic power and recovery in elite ice hockey players during a simulated game. J Strength Cond Res 33(9): 2503-2512, 2019-This project investigated whether there was a relationship between maximal aerobic power and the recovery or performance in elite ice hockey players during a simulated hockey game. An on-ice protocol was used to simulate a game of ice hockey. Recovery values were determined by the differences in lactate and heart rate measures. Total distance traveled was also recorded as a performance measure. On 2 other days, subjects returned and completed a maximal aerobic power test on a treadmill and a maximal lactate test on ice. Statistical analysis showed no relationship between maximal aerobic power or maximal lactate values and recovery (heart rate, lactate) or the performance measure of distance traveled. It was concluded that there was no relationship between maximal aerobic power and recovery during a simulated game in elite hockey players.

Shuttle versus straight repeated-sprint ability tests and their relationship to anthropometrics and explosive muscular performance in elite handball players

BACKGROUND

This study assessed inter-relationships between shuttle and straight repeated-sprint ability tests and the relationship of each measure to anthropometric and explosive lower limb performance data in elite handball players.

METHODS

Twenty-two elite male handball players (18.9±0.2 years; body mass: 83.3±1.1 kg, height: 1.79±2.30 m, body fat: 12.8±0.2%) completed tests that included a lower limb force-velocity test of peak power (Wpeak), jumping ability (squat and counter-movement jumps; SJ, CMJ), 1 repetition maximum (1-RM) half back squat, average sprint velocity over 5 m (V-5 m), peak velocity between 25-30 m (Vmax), and Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test level 1 (Yo-Yo IR1), and anthropometric determinations of cross-sectional areas and muscle volumes for leg and thigh muscles. Data were compared with performance on two repeated sprint tests; the straight test (6 × 30 m [RSA30]) and the intermittent test (6×[2×15 m] shuttle sprints [RSA15]).

RESULTS

V-5 m, 1-RM, and thigh and leg muscle cross-sectional areas and volumes showed relevant relationships to the shuttle RSA test (r2≥0.5). The Yo-Yo IR1 explained the largest percentage of variance in RSA15 total time (60%), and V-5 m also explained 56% of the variance in RSA15 total time. RSA15% fatigue was only related to 1-RM (explained variance: 58%), and the RSA30 test showed no useful correlations with any of the investigated predictors. Multiple-regression analyses using all physical tests explained 91% of the variance in RSA15 total time (P<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The volume of the leg muscles seems important to power production and repeated sprints over distances of 15 m or less. RSA15 is related to muscular power, maximal strength, speed and endurance performance; however, the straight repeated sprint ability test is not, and thus does not seem relevant for the testing of handball players.

Loads and Movement Speeds Dictate Differences in Power Output During Circuit Training

Power training has become a common exercise intervention for improving muscle strength, power, and physical function while reducing injury risk. Few studies, however, have evaluated acute load changes on power output during traditional resistance training protocols. Therefore, the aim of this study was to quantify the effects of different loading patterns on power output during a single session of circuit resistance training (CRT). Nine male (age = 19.4 ± 0.9 years) and 11 female participants (age = 20.6 ± 1.6 years) completed 3 CRT protocols during separate testing sessions using 7 pneumatic exercises. Protocols included heavy load explosive contraction (HLEC: 80% one repetition maximum [1RM], maximum speed concentric-2 seconds eccentric), heavy load controlled contraction (HLCC: 80% 1RM, 2 seconds concentric-2 seconds eccentric), and moderate load explosive contraction (MLEC: 50% 1RM, maximum speed concentric-2 seconds eccentric). Protocols were assigned randomly using a counterbalanced design. Power for each repetition and set were determined using computerized software interfaced with each machine. Blood lactate was measured at rest and immediately postexercise. For male and female participants, average power was significantly greater during all exercises for HLEC and MLEC than HLCC. Average power was greatest during the HLEC for leg press (LP), hip adduction (ADD), and hip abduction (ABD) (p ≤ 0.05), whereas male participants alone produced their greatest power during HLEC for leg curl (LC) (p < 0.001). For male and female participants, significantly greater power was detected by set for LP, lat pull-down (LAT), ADD, LC, and ABD for the MLEC protocol (p < 0.02) and for LP, LAT, CP, and LC for the HLEC protocol (p < 0.03). A condition × sex interaction was seen for blood lactate changes ((Equation is included in full-text article.)= 0.249; p = 0.024), with female participants producing a significantly greater change for MLEC than HLEC (Mdiff = 1.61 ± 0.35 mmol·L; p = 0.011), whereas male participants showed no significant differences among conditions. Performing a CRT protocol using explosive training patterns, especially at high loads for lower-body exercises and moderate loads for upper-body exercises, produces significantly higher power than controlled speed training in most exercises. These results provide exercisers, personal trainers, and strength coaches with information that can assist in the design of training protocols to maximize power output during CRT.

Repeated sprint ability in young soccer players at different game stages

The purpose of this study was to determine the repeated sprint ability (RSA) of young (16.9 ± 0.5 years) soccer players at different game stages. Players performed repeated sprint test (RST) (12 × 20 m) after warm-up before a game, at half-time, and after a full soccer game, each on a different day, in a random order. The ideal (fastest) sprint time (IS) and total (accumulative) sprint time (TS) were significantly slower at the end of the game compared with those after the warm-up before the game (p < 0.01 for each). Differences between IS and TS after the warm-up before the game and at half-time, and between half-time and end of the game, were not statistically significant. There was no significant difference in the performance decrement during the RST after warm-up before the game, at half-time, or the end of the game. Significant negative correlation was found between predicted V[Combining Dot Above]O2 and the difference between TS after the warm-up before the game and the end of the game (r = -0.52), but not between predicted V[Combining Dot Above]O2 and the difference in any of the RST performance indices between warm-up before the game and half-time, or between half-time and the end of the game. The findings indicate a significant RSA reduction only at the end but not at the half-time of a soccer game. The results also suggest that the contribution of the aerobic system to soccer intensity maintenance is crucial, mainly during the final stages of the game.

The reliability, validity and sensitivity of a novel soccer-specific reactive repeated-sprint test (RRST)

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to determine the reliability, validity and sensitivity of a reactive repeated-sprint test (RRST).

METHODS

Elite (n = 72) and sub-elite male (n = 87) and elite female soccer players (n = 12) completed the RRST at set times during a season. Total distance timed was 30 m and the RRST performance measure was the total time (s) across eight repetitions. Competitive match running performance was measured using GPS and high-intensity running quantified (≥ 19.8 km h(-1)).

RESULTS

Test-retest coefficient of variation in elite U16 and sub-elite U19 players was 0.71 and 0.84 %, respectively. Elite U18 players' RRST performances were better (P < 0.01) than elite U16, sub-elite U16, U18, U19 and elite senior female players (58.25 ± 1.34 vs 59.97 ± 1.64, 61.42 ± 2.25, 61.66 ± 1.70, 61.02 ± 2.31 and 63.88 ± 1.46 s; ES 0.6-1.9). For elite U18 players, RRST performances for central defenders (59.84 ± 1.35 s) were lower (P < 0.05) than full backs (57.85 ± 0.77 s), but not attackers (58.17 ± 1.73 s) or central and wide midfielders (58.55 ± 1.08 and 58.58 ± 1.89 s; ES 0.7-1.4). Elite U16 players demonstrated lower (P < 0.01) RRST performances during the preparation period versus the start, middle and end of season periods (61.13 ± 1.53 vs 59.51 ± 1.39, 59.25 ± 1.42 and 59.20 ± 1.57 s; ES 1.0-1.1). Very large magnitude correlations (P < 0.01) were observed between RRST performance and high-intensity running in the most intense 5-min period of a match for both elite and sub-elite U18 players (r = -0.71 and -0.74), with the best time of the RRST also correlating with the arrowhead agility test for elite U16 and U18 players (r = 0.84 and 0.75).

CONCLUSION

The data demonstrate that the RRST is a reliable and valid test that distinguishes between performance across standard, position and seasonal period.

Aerobic and anaerobic determinants of repeated sprint ability in team sports athletes

The aim of this study was to examine in team sports athletes the relationship between repeated sprint ability (RSA) indices and both aerobic and anaerobic fitness components. Sixteen team-sport players were included (age, 23.4 ± 2.3 years; weight, 71.2 ± 8.3 kg; height, 178 ± 7 cm; body mass index, 22.4 ± 2 kg · m(-2); estimated VO2max, 54.16 ± 3.5 mL · kg(-1) · min(-1)). Subjects were licensed in various team sports: soccer (n = 8), basketball (n = 5), and handball (n = 3). They performed 4 tests: the 20 m multi-stage shuttle run test (MSRT), the 30-s Wingate test (WingT), the Maximal Anaerobic Shuttle Running Test (MASRT), and the RSA test (10 repetitions of 30 m shuttle sprints (15 + 15 m with 180° change of direction) with 30 s passive recovery in between). Pearson's product moment of correlation among the different physical tests was performed. No significant correlations were found between any RSA test indices and WingT. However, negative correlations were found between MASRT and RSA total sprint time (TT) and fatigue index (FI) (r = -0.53, p < 0.05 and r = -0.65, p < 0.01, respectively). No significant relationship between VO2max and RSA peak sprint time (PT) and total sprint time (TT) was found. Nevertheless, VO2max was significantly correlated with the RSA FI (r = -0.57, p < 0.05). In conclusion, aerobic fitness is an important factor influencing the ability to resist fatigue during RSA exercise. Our results highlighted the usefulness of MASRT, in contrast to WingT, as a specific anaerobic testing procedure to identify the anaerobic energy system contribution during RSA.

Relationships between the yo-yo intermittent recovery test and anaerobic performance tests in adolescent handball players

The aim of the present study was to investigate relationships between a performance index derived from the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test level 1 (Yo-Yo IR1) and other measures of physical performance and skill in handball players. The other measures considered included peak muscular power of the lower limbs (Wpeak), jumping ability (squat and counter-movement jumps (SJ, CMJ), a handball skill test and the average sprinting velocities over the first step (VS) and the first 5 m (V5m). Test scores for 25 male national-level adolescent players (age: 17.2 ± 0.7 years) averaged 4.83 ± 0.34 m·s⁻¹ (maximal velocity reached at the Yo-Yo IR1); 917 ± 105 Watt, 12.7 ± 3 W·kg⁻¹ (Wpeak); 3.41 ± 0.5 m·s⁻¹ and 6.03 ± 0.6 m·s⁻¹ (sprint velocities for Vs and V5m respectively) and 10.3 ± 1 s (handball skill test). Yo-Yo IR1 test scores showed statistically significant correlations with all of the variables examined: Wpeak (W and W·kg⁻¹) r = 0.80 and 0.65, respectively, p≤0.001); sprinting velocities (r = 0.73 and 0.71 for VS and V5m respectively; p≤0.001); jumping performance (SJ: r = 0.60, p≤0.001; CMJ: r= 0.66, p≤0.001) and the handball skill test (r = 0.71; p≤0.001). We concluded that the Yo-Yo test score showed a sufficient correlation with other potential means of assessing handball players, and that intra-individual changes of Yo-Yo IR1 score could provide a useful composite index of the response to training or rehabilitation, although correlations lack sufficient precision to help in players’ selection.

Relationships Among Two Repeated Activity Tests and Aerobic Fitness of Volleyball Players

The purpose of the study was to determine performance indices of a repeated sprint test (RST) and to examine their relationships with performance indices of a repeated jump test (RJT) and with aerobic fitness among trained volleyball players. Sixteen male volleyball players performed RST (6 × 30 m sprints), RJT (6 sets of 6 consecutive jumps), and an aerobic power test (20-m Shuttle Run Test). Performance indices for the RST and the RJT were (a) the ideal 30-m run time (IS), the total run time (TS) of the 6 sprints, and the performance decrement (PD) during the test and (b) the ideal jump height (IJ), the total jump height (TJ) of all the jumps, and the PD during the test, respectively. No significant correlations were found between performance indices of the RST and RJT. Significant correlations were found between PD, IS, and TS in the RST protocol and predicted peak V[Combining Dot Above]O2 (r = -0.60, -0.75, -0.77, respectively). No significant correlations were found between performance indices of the RJT (IJ, TJ, and PD) and peak V[Combining Dot Above]O2. The findings suggest that a selection of repeated activity test protocols should acknowledge the specific technique used in the sport, and that a distinct RJT, rather than the classic RST, is more appropriate for assessing the anaerobic capabilities of volleyball players. The findings also suggest that aerobic fitness plays only a minor role in performance maintenance throughout characteristic repeated jumping activity of a volleyball game.

Repeated sprint training in normobaric hypoxia

Repeated sprint ability (RSA) is a critical success factor for intermittent sport performance. Repeated sprint training has been shown to improve RSA, we hypothesised that hypoxia would augment these training adaptations. Thirty male well-trained academy rugby union and rugby league players (18.4±1.5 years, 1.83±0.07 m, 88.1±8.9 kg) participated in this single-blind repeated sprint training study. Participants completed 12 sessions of repeated sprint training (10×6 s, 30 s recovery) over 4 weeks in either hypoxia (13% F_iO₂) or normoxia (21% F_iO₂). Pretraining and post-training, participants completed sports specific endurance and sprint field tests and a 10×6 s RSA test on a non-motorised treadmill while measuring speed, heart rate, capillary blood lactate, muscle and cerebral deoxygenation and respiratory measures. Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Level 1 test performance improved after RS training in both groups, but gains were significantly greater in the hypoxic (33±12%) than the normoxic group (14±10%, p<0.05). During the 10×6 s RS test there was a tendency for greater increases in oxygen consumption in the hypoxic group (hypoxic 6.9±9%, normoxic (−0.3±8.8%, p=0.06) and reductions in cerebral deoxygenation (% changes for both groups, p=0.09) after hypoxic than normoxic training. Twelve RS training sessions in hypoxia resulted in twofold greater improvements in capacity to perform repeated aerobic high intensity workout than an equivalent normoxic training. Performance gains are evident in the short term (4 weeks), a period similar to a preseason training block.

Changes in repeated-sprint performance in relation to change in locomotor profile in highly-trained young soccer players

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of changes in maximal aerobic (MAS) and sprinting (MSS) speeds and the anaerobic reserve (ASR) on repeated-sprint performance. Two hundred and seventy highly-trained soccer players (14.5 ± 1.6 year) completed three times per season (over 5 years) a maximal incremental running test to approach MAS, a 40-m sprint with 10-m splits to assess MSS and a repeated-sprint test (10 × 30-m sprints), where best (RSb) and mean (RSm) sprint times, and percentage of speed decrement (%Dec) were calculated. ASR was calculated as MSS-MAS. While ∆RSb were related to ∆MSS and ∆body mass (r(2) = 0.42, 90%CL[0.34;0.49] for the overall multiple regression, n = 334), ∆RSm was also correlated with ∆MAS and ∆sum of 7 skinfolds (r(2) = 0.43 [0.35;0.50], n = 334). There was a small and positive association between ∆%Dec and ∆MAS (r(2) = 0.02 [-0.07;0.11], n = 334). Substantial ∆MSS and ∆MAS had a predictive value of 70 and 55% for ∆RSm, respectively. Finally, ∆ASR per se was not predictive of ∆RSm (Cohen's = +0.8 to -0.3 with increased ASR), but the greater magnitude of ∆RSm improvement was observed when MSS, MAS and ASR increased together (0.8 vs. +0.4 with ASR increased vs. not, additionally to MSS and MAS). Low-cost field tests aimed at assessing maximal sprinting and aerobic speeds can be used to monitor ∆RS performance.

The effect of a short practical warm-up protocol on repeated sprint performance

The aim of our study was to investigate the effect of a short, practical, 2-phase warm-up on repeated sprint performance when compared with more traditional warm-up protocols that contain stretching activities. Eleven subelite male soccer players completed a warm-up protocol that commenced with 5 minutes jogging at approximately 65% of maximal heart rate, followed by no stretching, static stretching, or dynamic stretching and finishing with a task-specific high-intensity activity. Using a crossover design, the 3 warm-up protocols were performed in a counterbalanced order with at least 48 hours between sessions. Repeated sprint performance was measured using a repeated sprint test that consisted of 6 × 40-m maximal sprints interspersed with a 20-second recovery. There were trivial differences in mean sprint time (0.2%) and posttest blood lactate (3.1%) between the 2-phase warm-up and the 3-phase warm-up that included dynamic stretching, whereas the short warm-up had a possibly detrimental effect on fastest sprint time (0.7%). Fastest (-1.1%) and mean (-1.2%) sprint times were quicker and posttest blood lactates were higher (13.2%) after the 2-phase warm-up when compared with the 3-phase warm-up that included static stretching. Although it is not harmful to complete a traditional 3-phase warm-up that includes dynamic stretching, it appears practical for athletes preparing for activities dependent on repeated sprint ability to complete a 2-phase warm-up consisting of a cardiovascular and specific high-intensity activity.

Reliability and sensitivity of a repeated high-intensity exercise performance test for rugby league and rugby union

The purpose of this study was to examine the reliability and sensitivity of 3 ecologically valid repeated high-intensity exercise (RHIE) tests for professional rugby league (RL) and rugby union (RU) players. A further purpose was to investigate the relationship between RHIE performance and measures of speed (20-m sprint) and high-intensity intermittent running ability (yo-yo intermittent recovery test). Thirty-six RU and RL players were separated into 3 equal groups based on playing position: backs, RL forwards and RU forwards. Test-retest reliability was assessed by comparing total sprint time over 9 sprints during 2 identical testing sessions. The intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) for total sprint time were moderate to high (0.82, 0.97, and 0.94) and coefficient of variation (CV) low (4.2, 1.4, and 0.6%) for the backs, RL forwards, and RU forwards tests, respectively. However, sprint performance decrement scores were poorer, with ICC and CV of 0.78, 0.86, and 0.88 and 49.5, 48.2, and 35.8% for the backs, RL forwards, and RU forwards, respectively. Total sprint times for the backs, RL forwards, and RU forwards decreased over the 3 tests by 0.54, 0.53, and 2.09 seconds, respectively. Changes in RHIE total sprint time were moderately related to changes in 20-m sprint times (T1 to T2, r = 0.63; T2 to T3, r = 0.69; and T1 to T3, r = 0.63; all p < 0.05) but not yo-yo intermittent recovery test performances. This study has shown that the designed RL and RU RHIE tests have moderate to high reliability and produce significant improvements over a training period when total sprint times are compared.

Relationship between repeated sprint ability and aerobic capacity in professional soccer players

Aim. The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationship between maximal aerobic capacity (VO_2 max) and repeated sprint ability (RSA) in a group of professional soccer players. Methods. Forty-one professional soccer players (age 23 ± 4 yrs, height 180.0 ± 5.3 cm, weight 79.6 ± 5.3 kg) were required to perform tests to assess RSA and VO_2 max on two separate days with at least 48 hr rest between testing sessions. Each player performed a treadmill test to determine their VO_2 max and a test for RSA involving the players completing 6 × 40 m sprints (turn after 20 m) with 20 s active recovery between each sprint. Results. There was a significant negative correlation between body mass normalised VO_2 max and mean sprint time (RSA_mean) (r = −0.655; P < 0.01) and total sprint time (RSA_total) (r = −0.591, P < 0.01). Conclusion. Results of the current study indicate that VO_2 max is one important factor aiding soccer players in the recovery from repeated sprint type activities.

Fatigue during intermittent-sprint exercise

1. There is a reversible decline in force production by muscles when they are contracting at or near their maximum capacity. The task-dependent nature of fatigue means that the mechanisms of fatigue may differ between different types of contractions. This paper examines how fatigue manifests during whole-body, intermittent-sprint exercise and discusses the potential muscular and neural mechanisms that underpin this fatigue. 2. Fatigue is defined as a reversible, exercise-induced reduction in maximal power output (e.g. during cycling exercise) or speed (e.g. during running exercise), even though the task can be continued. 3. The small changes in surface electromyogram (EMG), along with a lack of change in voluntary muscle activation (estimated from both percutaneous motor nerve stimulations and trans-cranial magnetic stimulation), indicate that there is little change in neural drive to the muscles following intermittent-sprint exercise. This, along with the observation that the decrease in EMG is much less than that which would be predicted from the decrease in power output, suggests that peripheral mechanisms are the predominant cause of fatigue during intermittent-sprint exercise. 4. At the muscle level, limitations in energy supply, including phosphocreatine hydrolysis and the degree of reliance on anaerobic glycolysis and oxidative metabolism, and the intramuscular accumulation of metabolic by-products, such as hydrogen ions, emerge as key factors responsible for fatigue.

Performance and fatigue during repeated sprints: what is the appropriate sprint dose?

When testing the ability of sportsmen to repeat maximal intensity efforts, or when designing specific training exercises to improve it, fatigue during repeated sprints is usually investigated through a number of sprints identical for all subjects, which induces a high intersubject variability in performance decrement in a typical heterogeneous group of athletes (e.g., team sport group, students, and research protocol volunteers). Our aim was to quantify the amplitude of the reduction in this variability when individualizing the sprint dose, that is, when requiring subjects to perform the number of sprints necessary to reach a target level of performance decrement. Fifteen healthy men performed 6-second sprints on a cycle ergometer with 24 seconds of rest until exhaustion or until 20 repetitions in case no failure occurred. Peak power output (PPO) was measured and a fatigue index (FI) computed. The variability in PPO decrement was compared between the 10th sprint and the sprint at which subject reached the target FI of 10%. Individual FI values after the 10th sprint were 14.6 ± 6.9 vs. 11.1 ± 1.2%, when individualizing the sprint dose, which corresponded to coefficients of interindividual variability of ∼47.3 and ∼10.8%, respectively. Individualizing the sprint dose substantially reduced intersubject variability in performance decrement, enabling a more standardized state of fatigue in repeated-sprints protocols designed to induce fatigue and test or train this specific repeated-sprint ability in a heterogeneous group of athletes. A direct feedback on the values of performance parameters is necessary between each sprint for the experimenter to set this individualized sprint dose.

Repeated-sprint ability - part I: factors contributing to fatigue

Short-duration sprints (<10 seconds), interspersed with brief recoveries (<60 seconds), are common during most team and racket sports. Therefore, the ability to recover and to reproduce performance in subsequent sprints is probably an important fitness requirement of athletes engaged in these disciplines, and has been termed repeated-sprint ability (RSA). This review (Part I) examines how fatigue manifests during repeated-sprint exercise (RSE), and discusses the potential underpinning muscular and neural mechanisms. A subsequent companion review to this article will explain a better understanding of the training interventions that could eventually improve RSA. Using laboratory and field-based protocols, performance analyses have consistently shown that fatigue during RSE typically manifests as a decline in maximal/mean sprint speed (i.e. running) or a decrease in peak power or total work (i.e. cycling) over sprint repetitions. A consistent result among these studies is that performance decrements (i.e. fatigue) during successive bouts are inversely correlated to initial sprint performance. To date, there is no doubt that the details of the task (e.g. changes in the nature of the work/recovery bouts) alter the time course/magnitude of fatigue development during RSE (i.e. task dependency) and potentially the contribution of the underlying mechanisms. At the muscle level, limitations in energy supply, which include energy available from phosphocreatine hydrolysis, anaerobic glycolysis and oxidative metabolism, and the intramuscular accumulation of metabolic by-products, such as hydrogen ions, emerge as key factors responsible for fatigue. Although not as extensively studied, the use of surface electromyography techniques has revealed that failure to fully activate the contracting musculature and/or changes in inter-muscle recruitment strategies (i.e. neural factors) are also associated with fatigue outcomes. Pending confirmatory research, other factors such as stiffness regulation, hypoglycaemia, muscle damage and hostile environments (e.g. heat, hypoxia) are also likely to compromise fatigue resistance during repeated-sprint protocols.

The influence of aerobic power on repeated anaerobic exercise in junior soccer players

The main purpose of the present study is to investigate the relationship between anaerobic power achieved in repeated anaerobic exercise and aerobic power. The study group consisted of 40 soccer players (age 17.3 ± 1.36 years). All participants performed 3 tests: a running-based anaerobic sprint test (RAST), a graded treadmill test (GXT), and a multistage fitness test (20mPST). A statistically significant correlation was found among peak power in the GXT and the maximum (r = 0.365, p=0.02), minimum (r=0.334, p=0.035) and average (r=0.401, p=0.01) power in the RAST. No relationships were found between VO2max obtained from both aerobic tests and any performance indices in the RAST. A statistically significant correlation was found between the VO2max obtained from the spiroergometry examination (GXT) and the calculated VO2max of 20mPST (r=0.382, p=0.015). In conclusion, the level of VO2max does not influence the performance indices in the RAST in elite junior soccer players. It is possible that the modification of anaerobic test protocol or a more heterogeneous study group would influence the results. The estimation of the VO2max in the 20mPST is too inaccurate and should not replace the laboratory spiroergometry examination.

Validity of a squash-specific test of multiple-sprint ability

We examined the validity and reproducibility of a squash-specific multiple-sprint test. Eight male squash and 8 male soccer players performed Baker's 8 × 40-m sprints and a squash-specific-multiple-sprint test on separate days. The sum of individual sprint times in each test was recorded. Six squash and 6 soccer players repeated the tests 7 days later to assess reproducibility using intraclass correlation. In addition, 2 England Squash coaches independently ranked the squash players using knowledge of the player and recent performances in local leagues. Performance on the squash-specific (r = 0.97 and 0.90) and Baker's test (r = 0.95 and 0.83) was reproducible in squash and soccer players, respectively, and did not differ on Baker's test (mean ± SD 72.9 ± 3.9 and 72.9 ± 2.8 seconds for squash and soccer players, p = 0.969, effect size = 0.03). Squash players (232 ± 32 seconds) outperformed soccer players (264 ± 14 seconds) on the squash-specific test (p = 0.02, effect size = 1.39). Performance on Baker's and the squash-specific test were related in squash players (r = 0.98, p < 0.001) but not in soccer players (r = -0.08, p = 0.87). Squash-player rank correlated with performance on the squash-specific (ρ = 0.79, p = 0.02) but not the Baker's test (ρ = 0.55, p = 0.16). The squash-specific test discriminated between groups with similar non-sport-specific multiple-sprint ability and in squash players. In conjunction with the relationship between test performances, the results suggest that the squash-specific test is a valid and reproducible measure of multiple-sprint ability in squash players and could be used for assessing and tracking training-induced changes in multiple-sprint ability.

Is lactate production related to muscular fatigue? A pedagogical proposition using empirical facts

The cause-effect relationship between lactic acid, acidosis, and muscle fatigue has been established in the literature. However, current experiments contradict this premise. Here, we describe an experiment developed by first-year university students planned to answer the following questions: 1) Which metabolic pathways of energy metabolism are responsible for meeting the high ATP demand during high-intensity intermittent exercise? 2) Which metabolic pathways are active during the pause, and how do they influence phosphocreatine synthesis? and 3) Is lactate production related to muscular fatigue? Along with these questions, students received a list of materials available for the experiment. In the classroom, they proposed two protocols of eight 30-m sprints at maximum speed, one protocol with pauses of 120 s and the other protocol with pauses of 20 s between sprints. Their performances were analyzed through the velocity registered by photocells. Blood lactate was analyzed before the first sprint and after the eighth sprint. Blood uric acid was analyzed before exercise and 15 and 60 min after exercises. When discussing the data, students concluded that phosphocreatine restoration is time dependent, and this fact influenced the steady level of performance in the protocol with pauses of 120 s compared with the performance decrease noted in the protocol with pauses of 20 s. As the blood lactate levels showed similar absolute increases after both exercises, the students concluded that lactate production is not related to the performance decrement. This activity allows students to integrate the understanding of muscular energy pathways and to reconsider a controversial concept with facts that challenge the universality of the hypothesis relating lactate production to muscular fatigue.

Repeated-sprint ability in professional and amateur soccer players

This study investigated the repeated-sprint ability (RSA) physiological responses to a standardized, high-intensity, intermittent running test (HIT), maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max), and oxygen uptake (VO2) kinetics in male soccer players (professional (N = 12) and amateur (N = 11)) of different playing standards. The relationships between each of these factors and RSA performance were determined. Mean RSA time (RSAmean) and RSA decrement were related to the physiological responses to HIT (blood lactate concentration ([La–]), r = 0.66 and 0.77; blood bicarbonate concentration ([HCO3–]), r = –0.71 and –0.75; and blood hydrogen ion concentration ([H+]),r = 0.61 and 0.73; all p < 0.05), VO2 max (r = –0.45 and –0.65, p < 0.05), and time constant (τ) in VO2 kinetics (r = 0.62 and 0.62, p < 0.05). VO2 max was not different between playing standards (58.5 ± 4.0 vs. 56.3 ± 4.5 mL·kg–1·min–1; p = 0.227); however, the professional players demonstrated better RSAmean (7.17 ± 0.09 vs. 7.41 ± 0.19 s; p = 0.001), lower [La–] (5.7 ± 1.5 vs. 8.2 ± 2.2 mmol·L–1; p = 0.004), lower [H+] (46.5 ± 5.3 vs. 52.2 ± 3.4 mmol·L–1; p = 0.007), and higher [HCO3–] (20.1 ± 2.1 vs. 17.7 ± 1.7 mmol·L–1; p = 0.006) after the HIT, and a shorter τ in VO2 kinetics (27.2 ± 3.5 vs. 32.3 ± 6.0 s; p = 0.019). These results show that RSA performance, the physiological response to the HIT, and τ differentiate between professional- and amateur-standard soccer players. Our results also show that RSA performance is related to VO2 max, τ, and selected physiological responses to a standardized, high-intensity, intermittent exercise.

Repeated sprint tests in young basketball players at different game stages

This study compared between performance indices of repeated sprint tests (RSTs) (12 x 20 m) during different stages of basketball game. Twelve young (17 +/- 0.5 year) basketball players performed three RSTs (after a warm-up, at half-time and after a full game) and aerobic power test, each on different days. Ideal (fastest) sprint time (IS) was significantly faster at half-time (p < 0.007) compared to after warm-up. There was no difference between IS after the warm-up and after a full game. Total (accumulative) sprint time (TS) was significantly faster at half-time (p < 0.03) compared to after the warm-up. There was no difference between TS after the warm-up and after a full game. No differences were found in the performance decrement (PD) between the three RSTs. Significant negative correlations were found between predicted VO(2) max and PD during the 12 x 20 m RST only when the RST was performed at half-time (r = -0.58) and after a full game (r = -0.59), and not when the RST was performed after the warm-up. The findings suggest that a more intense warm-up is needed for better repeated sprint performance at the initial phases of the game and that the aerobic system is important to intensity maintenance mainly during the last stages of the game.

Relationships between repeated sprint testing, speed, and endurance

Repeated sprint testing is gaining popularity in team sports, but the methods of data analysis and relationships to speed and endurance qualities are not well described. We compared three different methods for analyzing repeated sprint test results, and we quantified relationships between repeated sprints, short sprints, and endurance test scores. Well-trained male junior Australian Football players (n = 60, age 18.1 +/- 0.4 years, height 1.88 +/- 0.07 m, mass 82.0 +/- 8.1 kg; mean +/- SD) completed a 6 x 30-m repeated sprint running test on a 20-second cycle, a 20-m sprint test (short sprint), and the 20-m multistage shuttle run for endurance. Repeated sprint results were evaluated in three ways: total time for all six sprints (TOTAL), percent change from predicted times (PRED) from the fastest 30-m sprint time, and percent change from first to last sprint (CHANGE). We observed a very large decrement (CHANGE 6.3 +/- 0.7%, mean +/- 90% confidence limits) in 30-m performance from the first to last sprint (4.16 +/- 0.10 to 4.42 +/- 0.11 seconds, mean +/- SD). Results from TOTAL were highly correlated with 20-m sprint and 20-m multistage shuttle run tests. Performance decrements calculated by PRED were highly correlated with TOTAL (r = 0.91), but neither method was directly comparable with CHANGE (r = -0.23 and r = 0.12 respectively). TOTAL was moderately correlated with fastest 20-m sprint time (r = 0.66) but not the 20-m multistage shuttle run (r = -0.20). Evaluation of repeated sprint testing is sensitive to the method of data analysis employed. The total sprint time and indices of the relative decrement in performance are not directly interchangeable. Repeated sprint ability seems more related to short sprint qualities than endurance fitness.

Fatigue in repeated-sprint exercise is related to muscle power factors and reduced neuromuscular activity

The purpose of this study was (1) to determine the relationship between each individual's anaerobic power reserve (APR) [i.e., the difference between the maximum anaerobic (Pana) and aerobic power (Paer)] and fatigability during repeated-sprint exercise and (2) to examine the acute effects of repeated sprints on neuromuscular activity, as evidenced by changes in the surface electromyogram (EMG) signals. Eight healthy males carried out tests to determine Pana (defined as the highest power output attained during a 6-s cycling sprint), Paer (defined as the highest power output achieved during a progressive, discontinuous cycling test to failure) and a repeated cycling sprint test (10 x 6-s max sprints with 30 s rest). Peak power output (PPO) and mean power output (MPO) were calculated for each maximal 6-s cycling bout. Root mean square (RMS) was utilized to quantify EMG activity from the vastus lateralis (VL) muscle of the right leg. Over the ten sprints, PPO and MPO decreased by 24.6 and 28.3% from the maximal value (i.e., sprint 1), respectively. Fatigue index during repeated sprints was significantly correlated with APR (R = 0.87; P < 0.05). RMS values decreased over the ten sprints by 14.6% (+/-6.3%). There was a strong linear relationship (R2 = 0.97; P < 0.05) between the changes in MPO and EMG RMS from the vastus lateralis muscle during the ten sprints. The individual advantage in fatigue-resistance when performing a repeated sprint task was related with a lower anaerobic power reserve. Additionally, a suboptimal net motor unit activity might also impair the ability to repeatedly generate maximum power outputs.