Physiological and molecular predictors of cycling sprint performance

The study aimed to identify novel muscle phenotypic factors that could determine sprint performance using linear regression models including the lean mass of the lower extremities (LLM), myosin heavy chain composition (MHC), and proteins and enzymes implicated in glycolytic and aerobic energy generation (citrate synthase, OXPHOS proteins), oxygen transport and diffusion (myoglobin), ROS sensing (Nrf2/Keap1), antioxidant enzymes, and proteins implicated in calcium handling. For this purpose, body composition (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry) and sprint performance (isokinetic 30-s Wingate test: peak and mean power output, Wpeak and Wmean ) were measured in young physically active adults (51 males and 10 females), from which a resting muscle biopsy was obtained from the musculus vastus lateralis. Although females had a higher percentage of MHC I, SERCA2, pSer16 /Thr17 -phospholamban, and Calsequestrin 2 protein expressions (all p < 0.05), and 18.4% lower phosphofructokinase 1 protein expression than males (p < 0.05), both sexes had similar sprint performance when it was normalized to body weight or LLM. Multiple regression analysis showed that Wpeak could be predicted from LLM, SDHB, Keap1, and MHC II % (R 2  = 0.62, p < 0.001), each variable contributing to explain 46.4%, 6.3%, 4.4%, and 4.3% of the variance in Wpeak , respectively. LLM and MHC II % explained 67.5% and 2.1% of the variance in Wmean , respectively (R 2  = 0.70, p < 0.001). The present investigation shows that SDHB and Keap1, in addition to MHC II %, are relevant determinants of peak power output during sprinting.

Betaine supplementation improves CrossFit performance and increases testosterone levels, but has no influence on Wingate power: randomized crossover trial

BACKGROUND

Because betaine (BET) supplementation may improve muscular strength and endurance, it seems plausible that BET will also influence CrossFit performance (CF).

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of three weeks of BET supplementation on body composition, CF performance, muscle power in the Wingate anaerobic test (WAnT), and the concentrations of selected hormones. The secondary aims were to analyze the effectiveness of two different BET doses (2.5 and 5.0 g/d) and their interaction with the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) genotype.

METHODS

The study was designed in a double-blinded randomized cross-over fashion. Forty-three CF practitioners completed the entire study. CF performance was measured using the Fight Gone Bad (FGB) workout and muscle power was evaluated in a 30-second WAnT. Body composition was determined by air-displacement plethysmography. Blood was drawn to assess hormone concentrations. The C677T single nucleotide polymorphism (rs180113) in the MTHFR gene was analyzed.

RESULTS

FGB total improved with BET by 8.7 ± 13.6% (p < 0.001), but no significant changes were observed with placebo (- 0.4 ± 10.0%, p = 0.128). No changes were also observed in WAnT and body composition. After BET supplementation testosterone concentration increased by 7.0 ± 15.4% with BET (p = 0.046) (no change with placebo: 1.5 ± 19.6%, p = 0.884) but had no effect on concentrations of insulin-like growth factor or cortisol. Finally, there were no significant interactions between MTHFR genotype and BET dose in any outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

BET supplementation may improve CF performance and increase testosterone concentration. However, there was no evidence of a difference between dosages (2.5 and 5.0 g/d) and MTHFR genotypes. The trial was registered on clinicaltrials.gov (NCT03702205) on 10 October 2018.

Whole-body photobiomodulation improves post-exercise recovery but does not affect performance or physiological response during maximal anaerobic cycling

This study aims to examine the effects of acute whole-body photobiomodulation (wbPBM), applied pre-exercise, on bouts of anaerobic cycling (Wingate) performances. Forty-eight healthy, active males and females participated in this single-blind, randomized, crossover study. Participants visited the laboratory three times to complete repeat (4 ×) Wingate testing, with one week between each visit. All participants completed baseline testing during their first visit and randomly received either the wbPBM or placebo condition before testing on the second visit, followed by the opposite condition on the third visit. There were no significant condition × time interactions for any variable (peak power, average power, power decrement, lactate, heart rate, ratings of perceived exertion, heart rate variability (HRV), root-mean square of differences between R-R intervals (rMSSD), power in the high-frequency range (HF) average, power in the low-frequency range (LF) average, total power, LF/HF, or power in the very-low-frequency range average). A main condition effect was only noted for heart rate, where peak heart rate was significantly higher for wbPBM (145, 141-148 bpm) than placebo (143, 139-146 bpm; p = 0.006) and baseline testing (143, 140-146; p = 0.049) throughout the entire testing session (i.e., collapsed across all timepoints). Furthermore, HRV (rMSSD) the following morning after testing was significantly higher for the wbPBM session compared to placebo (p = 0.043). There were no differences in perceived recovery (p = 0.713) or stress (p = 0.978) scores between wbPBM and placebo. Implementing 20 min of wbPBM immediately prior to maximal bouts of anaerobic cycling did not improve performance (i.e., power output) or physiological responses (e.g., lactate). However, wbPBM elicited the ability to work at a higher heart rate throughout testing and seemed to enhance recovery through improved HRV the following morning.

The Effect of High Nicotine Dose on Maximum Anaerobic Performance and Perceived Pain in Healthy Non-Smoking Athletes: Crossover Pilot Study

Background: In recent years, there has been intensive discussion about the positive effect of nicotine usage on enhancing sports performance. It is frequently applied through a non-burned tobacco form before physical activity. Nicotine is under the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) 2021 monitoring program. Therefore, study results that reveal either positive or negative effects are expected. This is the pilot study that reports the effect of 8 mg dose of nicotine on performance and perceived pain. Material and Methods: This research aimed to explore the oral intake effect of a high-nicotine dose (8 mg) on the maximum anaerobic performance and other selected physical performance parameters in healthy, well-trained adult athletes (n = 15, age 30.7 ± 3.6, BMI 25.3 ± 1.7). The cross-sectional study protocol included the oral administration of either sublingual nicotine or placebo tablets before the anaerobic load assessed by a standardized 30 s Wingate test of the lower limbs. Afterward, the Borg subjective perception of pain (CR 10) and Borg rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were evaluated. Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used for the analysis of data with a 0.05 level of significance. Results: The results revealed that oral administration of an 8 mg nicotine dose does not significantly improve any of the physical performance parameters monitored. We only reported the statistically significant positive effect in RPE (p = 0.03). Conclusion: Lower perception of pain intensity that we reported after nicotine application might be an important factor that affects performance. However, we did not report any improvement in physical performance parameters.

The Effects of Alpha-Glycerylphosphorylcholine on Heart Rate Variability and Hemodynamic Variables Following Sprint Interval Exercise in Overweight and Obese Women

The current study examined the effects of Alpha-Glycerylphosphorylcholine (A-GPC) on heart rate variability (HRV) and hemodynamic responses following a sprint interval exercise (SIE) in women who were overweight or obese. Participants (n = 12, 31.0 ± 4.6 years; 29.4 ± 2.1 kg/m2) consumed 1000 mg of A-GPC or a placebo after eating breakfast in a randomized, double-blind cross-over design. After 60 min, participants performed two bouts of the SIE (30 s Wingate) interspersed with 4 min of active recovery (40 rpm). Hemodynamic variables and HRV domains were measured before and 60 min after the A-GPC consumption, immediately after SIE, and every 15 min up to 120 min during recovery. A-GPC consumption increased resting levels of both the time domain (Standard Deviation of RR wave intervals [SDNN] and percentage of interval differences of adjacent RR intervals greater than 50 ms [pNN50%]) and frequency domain (high frequency [HF] and low frequency [LF]) variables of HRV (p < 0.05). Moreover, HRV variables (except for LF/HF) decreased (p < 0.05) immediately after SIE in the A-GPC and placebo sessions. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure increased (p < 0.05) immediately after SIE in both trials. Both HRV and hemodynamic variables recovered (p < 0.05) faster in the A-GPC compared to the placebo session. We concluded that A-GPC consumption recovers HRV and blood pressure faster following strenuous exercise in overweight and obese women, and that it might favorably modify cardiac autonomic function.

Effect of Six-Week Speed Endurance Training on Peripheral Fatigue

(1) Speed endurance training (inducing a high blood lactate concentration) delays excitation-contraction coupling impairment, thus providing more space for high-frequency fatigue to occur in the early stage of maximal concentric actions. This study aimed to test the hypothesis that the maintenance type of speed endurance training may shift peripheral fatigue from low-frequency to high-frequency fatigue after the 15 s long Wingate test. (2) Six students of physical education performed the corresponding training for six weeks. Before and after this period, they were tested for low- and high-frequency fatigue after the 15 s long Wingate test; additionally, their blood lactate concentrations, maximal cycling power, work, fatigue index, and muscle twitch responses were also tested. (3) The training increased the maximal cycling power and work (p < 0.001 and p < 0.01, respectively) with minor changes in the mean fatigue index and blood lactate concentration (both p > 0.05). Low-frequency dominant fatigue before the training showed a trend toward high-frequency dominant fatigue after the training (p > 0.05). (4) The results showed that the 15 s Wingate test failed to induce significant high-frequency fatigue. Even though it displayed a substantial fatigue index, the changes in favor of high-frequency fatigue were too small to be relevant.

Time-of-Day Effects on Anaerobic Power and Concentration of Selected Hormones in Blind Men

Knowledge of the circadian rhythm of the blind person and diurnal changes in anaerobic power and hormones concentration can create the possibility of individualising physical training. The aim of the study was to examine the time-of-day effects on anaerobic performance and the concentration of selected hormones. The measurements were performed at two different times of the day (10:00 a.m., 10:00 p.m.) in blind men at the age of 20–25 years old. The experiment group was chosen by using repeated hormonal tests four times a day so that each selected patient had a sleep/wake cycle even of 24 h. Anaerobic peak power and total work were tested in an anaerobic sprint test, and the concentration of growth hormone, testosterone, cortisol, and melatonin was determined. In blind men, the hormonal response was not driven by the photoperiod as in the control group. In the blind group, at 10:00 p.m., anaerobic peak power and total work results were significantly higher than at 10:00 a.m. and negatively correlated with melatonin levels. No such correlation was found in the control group.

Effects of Time-Restricted Feeding on Supramaximal Exercise Performance and Body Composition: A Randomized and Counterbalanced Crossover Study in Healthy Men

Using a crossover design, we explored the effects of both short- and long-term time-restricted feeding (TRF) vs. regular diet on Wingate (WnT) performance and body composition in well-trained young men. Twelve healthy male physical education students were included (age: 22.4 ± 2.8 years, height: 174.0 ± 7.1 cm, body mass: 73.6 ± 9.5 kg, body mass index: 24.2 ± 2.0 kg/m²). The order of dieting was randomized and counterbalanced, and all participants served as their own controls. TRF was limited to an 8-h eating window and non-TRF involved a customary meal pattern. Participants performed WnT tests and body composition scans at baseline, post-one and post-four weeks of the assigned diet. Before testing, participants were asked to fill out a dietary record over four consecutive days and were instructed to continue their habitual training throughout the study. Energy intake and macronutrient distribution were similar at baseline in both conditions. WnT mean power and total work output increased post-four weeks of TRF. Both conditions were similarly effective in increasing fat-free mass after four weeks of intervention. However, there was no correlation between change in fat-free mass and WnT mean power after TRF. TRF did not elicit any changes in WnT performance or body composition one week post-intervention. Thus, long-term TRF can be used in combination with regular training to improve supramaximal exercise performance in well-trained men.

Age- and Sex-Related Differences in Recovery From High-Intensity and Endurance Exercise: A Brief Review

Postexercise recovery is a fundamental component for continuous performance enhancement. Due to physiological and morphological changes in aging and alterations in performance capacity, athletes of different ages may recover at different rates from physical exercise. Differences in body composition, physiological function, and exercise performance between men and women may also have a direct influence on restoration processes.

PURPOSE

This brief review examines current research to indicate possible differences in recovery processes between male and female athletes of different age groups. The paper focuses on postexercise recovery following sprint and endurance tests and tries to identify determinants that modulate possible differences in recovery between male and female subjects of different age groups.

RESULTS

The literature analysis indicates age- and sex-dependent differences in short- and long-term recovery. Short-term recovery differs among children, adults, and masters. Children have shorter lactate half-life and a faster cardiac and respiratory recovery compared to adults. Additionally, children and masters require shorter recovery periods during interval bouts than trained adults. Trained women show a slower cardiac and respiratory recovery compared to trained men. Long-term recovery is strongly determined by the extent of muscle damage. Trained adults tend to have more extensive muscle damage compared to masters and children.

CONCLUSION

The influence of age and sex on the recovery process varies among the different functional systems and depends on the time of the recovery processes. Irrespective of age and sex, the performance capacity of the individual determines the recovery process after high-intensity and endurance exercise.

Sprint Interval Exercise Performance in Vegans

OBJECTIVE

The impact of a vegan diet on sprint interval exercise performance is unknown. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to compare performance during a sprint interval exercise between omnivores and vegans.

METHODS

Nine healthy omnivores (4 men and 5 women) and nine healthy vegans (4 men and 5 women), with similar levels of daily physical activity, performed four bouts (5-min rest between bouts) of a 30-s all-out sprint exercise on a cycle ergometer. Peak power, mean power, fatigue index, and time to reach maximal power output in each bout were recorded.

RESULTS

There was a higher peak power in bouts 1 and 2 compared with bouts 3 and 4 (p < 0.02), and a higher mean power in bout 1 compared with bouts 2, 3 and 4 (p < 0.02). However, for all bouts, there were no significant difference between omnivores and vegans in peak power (7.60 ± 1.55 vs. 8.16 ± 1.27, 7.52 ± 1.6 vs 7.61 ± 0.73, 7.00 ± 1.44 vs. 7.00 ± 1.05 and 6.95 ± 1.42 vs. 6.49 ± 0.90 W.kg^-1, all p > 0.05) and in mean power (5.35 ± 0.93 vs. 5.69 ± 0.84, 5.10 ± 0.88 vs. 5.21 ± 0.49, 4.79 ± 0.81 vs. 4.79 ± 0.45 and 4.81 ± 0.81 vs. 4.69 ± 0.47 W.kg^-1, all p > 0.05). Fatigue index and time to reach maximal power output were not affected by diet or bouts (all p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that a vegan diet does not compromise sprint interval exercise performance.

Acute Effects of Caffeine Intake on Psychological Responses and High-Intensity Exercise Performance

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of caffeine supplementation on: (i) psychological responses of subjective vitality and mood; (ii) performance through a Wingate test; and (iii) rate of perceived exertion (RPE) reported after a Wingate test.

METHODS

Fifteen male participants (22.60 ± 2.16 years) ingested 6 mg·kg-1 of caffeine or placebo (sucrose) supplementation in two experimental sessions. After 60 min from supplement intake, participants fulfilled two questionnaires, which measured subjective vitality and mood state, respectively. Subsequently, participants' performance was assessed through a Wingate test, which was followed by measurements of RPE at general, muscular, or cardiovascular level.

RESULTS

Caffeine supplementation increased some components of mood, as assessed by profile of mood states (POMS) (tension and vigor dimensions) and subjective vitality profiles, which were followed by a greater maximum power, average power, and lower time needed to reach maximum power during the Wingate test. Moreover, lower RPE, both at muscular and general levels were reported by participants after the Wingate test.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that caffeine supplementation exerts positive effects both in psychological and physical domains in trained subjects.

Effects of artificial CO2-rich cold-water immersion on repeated-cycling work efficiency

We investigated the acute effects of cold-water immersion (20°C) with higher CO₂ concentration (CCWI) following a high-intensity Wingate anaerobic exercise test (WAnT) on subjects' sublingual temperature (T_sub), blood lactate ([La]b), heart rate (HR), and aerobic cycling work efficiency (WE) compared to cold tap-water immersion (20°C; CWI) and passive recovery (PAS). Fifteen subjects completed three testing sessions at 1-week intervals. Each trial consisted of a first WE and WAnT, and a 20-min recovery intervention (randomized: CCWI, CWI, and PAS) before repeating a second WE and WAnT. The WE was measured by the metabolic demand during 50%V̇O₂max exercise. HR, T_sub, and [La]b were recorded throughout the testing sessions. There was a significant decline in the WE from 1st bout to 2nd bout at each recovery intervention. The WAnT was also significantly reduced at 2nd bout. Significantly reduced [La]b was achieved at CCWI compared to PAS, but not to the CWI. Likewise, the reduction in HR following immersion was the largest at CCWI compared to the other conditions. These findings indicate that CCWI is an effective intervention for maintaining repeated cycling work efficiency, which might be associated with reduced [La]b and HR.

Effects of Sprint Interval Training at Different Altitudes on Cycling Performance at Sea-Level

BACKGROUND

Benefits of sprint interval training performed in hypoxia (SIH) compared to normoxia (SIN) have been assessed by studies mostly conducted around 3000 m of simulated altitude. The present study aims to determine whether SIH at an altitude as high as 4000 m can elicit greater adaptations than the same training at 2000 m, 3000 m or sea-level.

METHODS

Thirty well-trained endurance male athletes (18-35 years old) participated in a six-week repeated sprint interval training program (30 s all-out sprint, 4 min 30 s recovery; 4-9 repetitions, 2 sessions/week) at sea-level (SL, n = 8), 2000 m (FiO2 16.7%, n = 8), 3000 m (FiO2 14.5%, n = 7) or 4000 m (FiO2 13.0%, n = 7). Aerobic and anaerobic exercise components were evaluated by an incremental exercise test, a 600 kJ time trial and a Wingate test before and after the training program.

RESULTS

After training, peak power output (PPO) during the incremental exercise test increased (~6%) without differences between groups. The lactate threshold assessed by Dmax increased at 2000 m (+14 ± 12 W) and 4000 m (+12 ± 11 W) but did not change at SL and 3000 m. Mean power during the Wingate test increased at SL, 2000 m and 4000 m, although peak power increased only at 4000 m (+38 ± 38 W).

CONCLUSIONS

The present study indicates that SIH using 30 s sprints is as efficient as SIN for improving aerobic and anaerobic qualities. Additional benefits such as lactate-related adaptations were found only in SIH and Wingate peak power only increased at 4000 m. This finding is of particular interest for disciplines requiring high power output, such as in very explosive sports.

Personalized Tests in Paralympic Athletes: Aerobic and Anaerobic Performance Profile of Elite Wheelchair Rugby Players

In Paralympic sports, the goal of functional classifications is to minimize the impact of impairment on the outcome of the competition. The present cross-sectional study aimed to investigate aerobic and anaerobic personalized tests in Paralympic athletes and to correlate them with the classification of the international wheelchair rugby federation (IWRF). Sixteen elite players of the Italian wheelchair rugby team volunteered for the study. Aerobic (incremental test to exhaustion) and anaerobic (Wingate 30s all-out test, 5 and 10-meter sprint test, shuttle test, isometric test) sport-performance measurements were correlated singularly or grouped (Z scores) with the classification point. Moreover, a multivariate permutation-based ranking analysis investigated possible differences in the overall level of performance among the adjacent classified groups of players, considering the scores of each test. A statistically significant correlation between the performance parameters and the IWRF functional classification considering both aerobic and anaerobic personalized tests was detected (0.58 ≤ r ≤ 0.88; 0.0260 ≤ p ≤ 0.0001). The multivariate permutation-based ranking analysis showed differences only for the low-pointers versus mid-pointers (p = 0.0195) and high-pointers (p = 0.0075). Although single performance parameters correlated with athletes’ classification point, results of the multivariate permutation-based ranking analysis seem to suggest considering only the most significant anaerobic and sport-specific performance parameters among athletes. These should be combined with the physical assessment and the qualitative observation, which are already part of the classification process to improve its effectiveness.

Acute effect of inspiratory resistive loading on sprint interval exercise performance in team-sport athletes

This study examined acute effects of inspiratory resistive loading (IRL) during rest intervals on sprint interval exercise (SIE) performance. In a randomized crossover design, nine collegiate basketball players performed IRL (15 cmH₂O) or passive recovery (CON) at 5-min rest intervals during and immediately after 6 sets of a 30-s SIE test. Performance, muscular oxygenation of vastus lateralis, blood lactate and pH were measured at each condition. Blood lactate at 5-min (-20.5 %) and 20-min (-21.3 %) after SIE were significantly lower in IRL than in CON. The pH at 5-min after SIE was significantly higher in IRL than in CON (+0.8 %, p <  0.05). However, the total work in IRL was significantly lower than in CON (-2.7 %, p <  0.05). Average changes in total hemoglobin at rest intervals in IRL were significantly lower than in CON (-34.5 %, p <  0.05). The IRL could attenuate exercise-induced metabolic acidosis; however, the decreased blood flow at rest intervals might increase the physical challenge in SIE.

Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training in Hypoxia on Taekwondo Performance

PURPOSE

To evaluate the effects of a 6-week taekwondo-specific high-intensity interval training (HIIT) in simulated normobaric hypoxia on physical fitness and performance in taekwondoists.

METHODS

Eighteen male and female black-belt taekwondoists trained twice a week for 6 weeks in normoxia or in hypoxia (FiO2 = 0.143 O2). The HIIT was composed of specific taekwondo movements and simulated fights. Body composition analyses and a frequency speed of kick test during 10 seconds (FSKT10s) and 5 × 10 seconds (FSKTmult), countermovement jump (CMJ) test, Wingate test, and an incremental treadmill test were performed before and after training. Blood lactate concentrations were measured after the FSKTmult and Wingate tests, and a fatigue index during the tests was calculated.

RESULTS

A training effect was found for FSKT10s (+35%, P < .001), FSKTmult (+32%, P < .001), and fatigue index (-48%, P = .002). A training effect was found for CMJ height (+5%, P = .003) during the CMJ test. After training, CMJ height increased in hypoxia only (+7%, P = .005). No effect was found for the parameters measured during Wingate test. For the incremental treadmill test, a training effect was found for peak oxygen consumption (P = .002), the latter being 10% lower after than before training in normoxia only (P = .002).

CONCLUSIONS

In black-belt taekwondoists, hypoxic HIIT twice a week for 6 weeks provides tiny additional gains on key performance parameters compared with normoxic HIIT. Whether the trivial effects reported here might be of physiological relevance to improve performance remains debatable and should be tested individually.

Gender Differences in Postural Stability among 13-Year-Old Alpine Skiers

This experiment examined changes in body sway after Wingate test (WAnT) in 19 adolescents practicing alpine skiing, subjected to the same type of training load for 4–5 years (10 girls and nine boys). The postural examinations were performed with eyes open (EO), eyes closed (EC), and sway reverenced vision (SRV) in the medial-lateral (ML) and anterior-posterior (AP) planes. The displacement of center of foot pressure (CoP), range of sway (RS), mean sway velocity (MV), way length, and surface area were measured in bipedal upright stance before and after the WAnT to assess the influence of fatigue on postural balance. There were no significant differences in WAnT parameters between girls and boys. Relative peak power (RPP), relative total work (RWtot) were (girls vs. boys) 8.89 ± 0.70 vs. 9.57 ± 1.22 W/kg, p < 0.05 and 227.91 ± 14.98 vs. 243.22 ± 30.24 W/kg, p < 0.05 respectively. The fatigue index (FI) was also on similar level in both genders; however, blood lactate concentration (BLa) was significantly higher in boys (10.35 ± 1.16 mM) than in girls (8.67 ± 1.35 mM) p = 0.007. In the EO examination, statistically significant differences between resting and fatigue conditions in the whole group and after the division into girls and boys were found. In fatigue conditions, significant gender differences were noted for measurements in the ML plane (sway path and RS) and RS in the AP plane. Comparison of the three conditions shows differences between EO vs. EC and SRV in AP plane measured parameters, and for RS in ML plane in rest condition in girls. The strong correlations between FI and CoP parameters mainly in ML plane in the whole group for all examination conditions were noted. By genders, mainly RS in ML plane strongly correlates with FI (r > 0.7). No correlation was found between BLa and CoP parameters (p > 0.06). The presented results indicate that subjecting adolescents of both genders to the same training may reduce gender differences in the postural balance ability at rest but not in fatigue conditions and that girls are significantly superior in postural balance in the ML plane than boys. It was also shown that too little or too much information may be destructive to postural balance in young adolescents.

Study on physical fitness factors affecting race-class of Korea racing cyclists

The purpose of this study is to compare and analyze the difference of isokinetic muscle functions, anaerobic capabilities, pedaling power and maximum strength according to race-class of Korea racing cyclists. The participants in this study were 57 racing cyclist candidates who graduated from the Korea racing school. One year after graduation, we confirmed race-class of candidates and they were divided into three groups: the first-class racer group (FC, n=14), second-class racer group (SC, n=29), third-class racer group (TC, n=14). The isokinetic muscle strength of trunk and knee flexion/extension was measured using HUMAC NORM and basic physical strength such as squat and bench press was analyzed by Ariel device. As results of this study, % Fat (percentage of body fat) in FC group was the lowest compared to other groups. Isokinetic knee flexion strength was higher in FC group than SC and TC racer groups. Peak and average pedaling power as well as maximum muscle strength were significantly higher in FC group than in other groups. Our findings suggest new evidence that pedaling power and isokinetic muscle strength might be closely associated with race-class of Korea racing cyclists.

Alterations in energy system contribution following upper body sprint interval training

PURPOSE

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the influence of different work-to-rest ratios on relative energy system utilization during short-term upper-body sprint interval training (SIT) protocols.

METHODS

Forty-two recreationally trained men were randomized into one of three training groups [10 s work bouts with 2 min of rest (10:2, n = 11) or 4 min of rest (10:4, n = 11), or 30 s work bouts with 4 min of rest (30:4, n = 10)] or a control group (CON, n = 10). Participants underwent six training sessions over 2 weeks with 4-6 'all-out' sprints. Participants completed an upper body Wingate test (30 s 'all-out' using 0.05 kg kg^-1 of the participant's body mass) pre- and post-intervention from which oxygen consumption and blood lactate were used to estimate oxidative, glycolytic, and adenosine triphosphate-phosphocreatine (ATP-PCr) energy system provisions. An analysis of covariance was performed on all testing measurements collected at post with the associated pre-values used as covariates.

RESULTS

Relative energy contribution (p = 0.026) and energy expenditure (p = 0.019) of the ATP-PCr energy system were greater in 10:4 (49.9%; 62.1 kJ) compared to CON (43.1%; 47.2 kJ) post training. No significant differences were found between groups in glycolytic or oxidative energy contribution over a 30 s upper body Wingate test.

CONCLUSION

SIT protocols with smaller work-to-rest ratios may enhance ATP-PCr utilization in a 30 s upper body Wingate over a 2-week intervention.

High-intensity interval exercise lowers postprandial glucose concentrations more in obese adults than lean adults

AIMS

To compare postprandial glucose responses to high-intensity interval exercise (HIE) between obese and lean individuals.

METHODS

Thirty healthy young adult males (15 obese, 15 lean) ate a standardised meal, then performed HIE (4 × 30-s Wingate cycling/4-min rest) or a no-exercise control trial (CON). Blood glucose was measured preprandially and up to 150 min postprandially.

RESULTS

Compared to CON, HIE reduced postprandial glucose concentrations at 120-150 min in obese (p < 0.001) and lean men (p < 0.05), with greater reductions in obese than lean subjects at 120 (-27.0% vs. -8.3%), 135 (-31.9% vs. -15.7%), and 150 min (-21.8% vs. -10.6%). The total glucose area under the curve (AUC) for the testing period was lower with HIE than CON among obese men (p < 0.05), but not lean men (p > 0.05). We found moderate correlations between body mass and postprandial glucose changes (r = 0.39-0.44, p < 0.05), and between glucose AUC and body mass and fat free mass (r = 0.39-0.48, p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that HIE may act as a time-efficient lifestyle intervention strategy for improving obesity-related diabetes risk factors, and might play a role in primary diabetes prevention for the healthy but sedentary population.

Comparison of maximum muscle strength and isokinetic knee and core muscle functions according to pedaling power difference of racing cyclist candidates

The purpose of this study was to investigate differences of maximum muscle strength and isokinetic knee and core muscle functions according to pedaling power of racing cyclist candidate. Subjects for this study were 200 racing cyclist candidates and divided into four groups: top 10% peak power group (TPP, n=20), low 10% peak power group (LPP, n=20), top 10% average power group (TAP, n=20), and low 10% average power group (LAP, n=20). The maximum muscle strength was consisted of grip strength, bench press and squat measured by Ariel device, and isokinetic knee and core muscle functions were analyzed by Humac Norm device. Significant differences between groups were determined with one-way repeated analysis of variance. As the result of this study, TPP and TAP groups showed significantly decreased body-fat mass and increased free fat mass when compared to LPP and LAP groups. The maximum strength of grip and squat was significantly higher in TPP and TAP than in other groups. Isokinetic knee extension and flexion strength was higher in TPP and TAP groups as well as isokinetic trunk extension and flexion functions were highest in TPP group. Thus, our findings suggest new evidence that muscle mass, maximal muscle strength, and isokinetic muscle functions might be important predictors of racing cyclist performance.

Is active recovery during cold water immersion better than active or passive recovery in thermoneutral water for postrecovery high-intensity sprint interval performance?

High-intensity exercise is impaired by increased esophageal temperature (T_es) above 38 °C and/or decreased muscle temperature. We compared the effects of three 30-min recovery strategies following a first set of three 30-s Wingate tests (set 1), on a similar postrecovery set of Wingate tests (set 2). Recovery conditions were passive recovery in thermoneutral (34 °C) water (Passive-TN) and active recovery (underwater cycling; ∼33% maximum power) in thermoneutral (Active-TN) or cold (15 °C) water (Active-C). T_es rose for all conditions by the end of set 1 (∼1.0 °C). After recovery, T_es returned to baseline in both Active-C and Passive-TN but remained elevated in Active-TN (p < 0.05). At the end of set 2, T_es was lower in Active-C (37.2 °C) than both Passive-TN (38.1 °C) and Active-TN (38.8 °C) (p < 0.05). From set 1 to 2 mean power did not change with Passive-TN (+0.2%), increased with Active-TN (+2.4%; p < 0.05), and decreased with Active-C (-3.2%; p < 0.05). Heart rate was similar between conditions throughout, except at end-recovery; it was lower in Passive-TN (92 beats·min^-1) than both exercise conditions (Active-TN, 126 beats·min^-1; Active-C, 116 beats·min^-1) (p < 0.05). Although Active-C significantly reduced T_es, the best postrecovery performance occurred with Active-TN. Novelty An initial set of 3 Wingates increased T_es to ∼38 °C. Thirty minutes of Active-C was well tolerated, and decreased T_es and blood lactate to baseline values, but decreased subsequent Wingate performance.

The effect of acute caffeine ingestion on upper and lower body anaerobic exercise performance

The current study examined the effect of acute caffeine ingestion on mean and peak power production, fatigue index and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) during upper body and lower body Wingate anaerobic test (WANT) performance. Using a double-blind design, 22 males undertook one upper body and one lower body WANT, 60 min following ingestion of caffeine (5 mg*kg^-1) and one upper body and one lower body WANT following ingestion of placebo (5 mg*kg^-1 Dextrose). Peak power was significantly higher (P = .001) following caffeine ingestion in both upper and lower body WANT. Peak power and mean power was also significantly higher during lower body, compared to upper body WANTs irrespective of substance ingested. However, caffeine ingestion did not enhance mean power neither in upper nor lower-body WANT. There were no significant differences in mean fatigue index as a consequence of substance ingested or mode of exercise (all P > 0.05). For RPE there was also a significant substance ingested X mode interaction (P = .001) where there were no differences in RPE between caffeine and placebo conditions in lower body WANTs but significantly lower RPE during upper body WANT in the presence of caffeine compared to placebo (P = .014). This is the first study to compare the effects of caffeine ingestion on upper and lower body 30-second WANT performance and suggests that caffeine ingestion in the dose of 5 mg*kg^-1 ingested 60 min prior to exercise significantly enhances peak power when data from upper and lower body WANTs are combined.

The effect of acute caffeine ingestion on upper body anaerobic exercise and cognitive performance

The current study examined the effect of acute caffeine ingestion on mean and peak power production during upper body Wingate test (WANT) performance, rating of perceived exertion, readiness to invest effort and cognitive performance. Using a double-blind design, 12 males undertook upper body WANTs, following ingestion of caffeine (5 mg*kg^-1) or placebo. Pre-substance ingestion, 60 mins post substance ingestion and post exercise participants completed measures of readiness to invest physical and mental effort and cognitive performance. Peak power was significantly higher (P = .026), fatigue index greater (P = .02) and rating of perceived exertion lower (P = .025) in the presence of caffeine. Readiness to invest physical effort was also higher (P = .016) in the caffeine condition irrespective of time point (pre, 60 mins post ingestion and post exercise). Response accuracy for incongruent trials on the Flanker task was superior in the presence of caffeine (P = .006). There was a significant substance × time interaction for response speed in both congruent and incongruent conditions (both P = .001) whereby response speeds were faster at 60 mins post ingestion and post exercise in the caffeine condition, compared to placebo. This is the first study to examine the effects of caffeine ingestion on this modality of exercise and suggests that caffeine ingestion significantly enhances peak power, readiness to invest physical effort, and cognitive performance during WANT performance.

Effects of Single Versus Multiple Bouts of Resistance Training on Maximal Strength and Anaerobic Performance

This study examined the effects of one single bout daily versus triple bouts of resistance exercise for 12 weeks on muscular strength and anaerobic performance of the upper body. Twenty young male adults (age: 22.0 ± 1.0 years, bench press: 44.0 ± 10.3 kg) were randomly assigned to a single bout (SB) or triple bouts (TB) of resistance exercise group. Maximal strength and anaerobic performance of the upper body using the bench press (one-repetition maximum) and the modified 30 s Wingate test were determined before and after the intervention. Additionally, changes in lactate levels before and after the Wingate test were measured. Although the SB and TB groups showed a significant increase in maximal strength (post-intervention, SB: 67.2 ± 9.2 and TB: 67.6 ± 7.6 kg, respectively) compared with the values at pre-intervention (SB: 44.6 ± 11.4 and TB: 43.9 ± 8.7 kg, respectively), there was no significant difference for this variable between the two groups post-intervention (p > 0.05). The anaerobic performance of the upper body in the SB and TB groups also displayed improvements without significant difference between the two groups after the completion of different training regimes. On the basis of the same training volume, multiple bouts of resistance training showed similar improvements in maximal strength and anaerobic performance to one bout of resistance training in young adult men without prior experience in resistance training.

The Effect of a New Sodium Bicarbonate Loading Regimen on Anaerobic Capacity and Wrestling Performance

Gastrointestinal side effects are the main problem with sodium bicarbonate (SB) use in sports. Therefore, our study assessed the effect of a new SB loading regimen on anaerobic capacity and wrestling performance. Fifty-eight wrestlers were randomized to either a progressive-dose regimen of up to 100 mg∙kg⁻¹ of SB or a placebo for 10 days. Before and after treatment, athletes completed an exercise protocol that comprised, in sequence, the first Wingate, dummy throw, and second Wingate tests. Blood samples were taken pre- and post-exercise. No gastrointestinal side effects were reported during the study. After SB treatment, there were no significant improvements in the outcomes of the Wingate and dummy throw tests. The only index that significantly improved with SB, compared to the placebo (p = 0.0142), was the time-to-peak power in the second Wingate test, which decreased from 3.44 ± 1.98 to 2.35 ± 1.17 s. There were also no differences in blood lactate or glucose concentrations. In conclusion, although the new loading regimen eliminated gastrointestinal symptoms, the doses could have been too small to elicit additional improvements in anaerobic power and wrestling performance. However, shortening the time-to-peak power during fatigue may be particularly valuable and is one of the variables contributing to the final success of a combat sports athlete.

Sodium bicarbonate ingestion improves repeated high-intensity cycling performance in the heat

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of sodium bicarbonate ingestion on performance and recovery of the Wingate test during exercise in the heat. At 30 °C (∼50% relative humidity), ten male team sport athletes (mean values ± SD; age = 22 ± 4 y; body mass = 76 ± 9 kg) completed two 30s Wingate tests using a resistive load of 7.5% of body mass separated by 5 min of active recovery. They consumed either sodium bicarbonate (0.5g·kg^-1 body mass) or sodium chloride as a taste-matched placebo (0.2g·kg^-1 body mass) divided into 3 doses at 4h intervals on the day of each test. Performance measures included peak power, rate of fatigue and anaerobic capacity whilst physiological measures of capillary pH, bicarbonate, base excess/deficit and lactate were taken at rest and 3 min following each Wingate test. At all time-points (baseline and following both Wingate tests) capillary pH, bicarbonate and base excess/deficit were higher with sodium bicarbonate, whilst lactate was higher following both Wingate tests with sodium bicarbonate (all p < 0.05). Anaerobic capacity was similar during Wingate 1 but was higher with sodium bicarbonate during Wingate 2 (p < 0.05), with peak power (p < 0.05) but not rate of fatigue (p > 0.05) different between the trials during Wingate 2. When performing high-intensity anaerobic exercise in the heat, sodium bicarbonate ingestion improves recovery and repeated exercise performance likely through its known effects for reducing metabolic acidosis.

The Effects of Acute High-Intensity Interval Training on Hematological Parameters in Sedentary Subjects

The objective of the study was to determine the effects of acute high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on hematological parameters in sedentary men. Ten healthy, non-smoker, and sedentary men aged between 18 and 24 years participated in the study. All subjects performed four Wingate tests with 4 min intervals between the tests. Blood samples were collected at pre-exercise, immediately after, 3 and 6 h after the fourth Wingate test. Hematological parameters were analyzed in these samples. The results showed that hematocrit percentage, hemoglobin values, red cell count, mean cell volume, platelet count, total white cell count, and counts of the white cell subgroups increased immediately after the acute HIIT and their values began to return to resting levels 3 h after exercise, and completely returned to resting levels 6 h after exercise. In conclusion, acute HIIT causes an inflammatory response in blood.

Active Recovery between Interval Bouts Reduces Blood Lactate While Improving Subsequent Exercise Performance in Trained Men

This study aimed to examine the blood lactate and blood pH kinetics during high-intensity interval training. Seventeen well-trained athletes exercised on two different occasions. Exercises consisted of three 30 s bouts at a constant intensity (90% of peak power) with 4 min recovery between bouts followed by a Wingate test (WT). The recoveries were either active recovery (at 60% of the lactate threshold intensity) or passive recovery (resting at sitting position). During the exercise, blood samples were taken to determine blood gasses, blood lactate, and blood pH, and peak and average power were calculated for the WT. When performing the active recovery trials, blood pH was significantly higher (p < 0.01) and blood lactate was significantly lower (p < 0.01) compared with the passive recovery trials. WT performance was significantly higher in the active recovery trials: peak power was 671 ± 88 and 715 ± 108 watts, and average power was 510 ± 70 and 548 ± 73 watts (passive and active respectively; p < 0.01). However, no statistically significant correlations were found between the increased pH and the increased performance in the active recovery trials. These results suggest that active recovery performed during high-intensity interval exercise favors the performance in a following WT. Moreover, the blood pH variations associated with active recovery did not explain the enhanced performance.

Supplementation with a Polyphenol-Rich Extract, PerfLoad®, Improves Physical Performance during High-Intensity Exercise: A Randomized, Double Blind, Crossover Trial

Workout capacity is energy-production driven. To produce peak metabolic power outputs, the organism predominantly relies more on anaerobic metabolism, but this undoubtedly has a negative and limiting impact on muscle function and performance. The aim of the study was to evaluate if an innovative polyphenol-based food supplement, PerfLoad^®, was able to improve metabolic homeostasis and physical performance during high-intensity exercises under anaerobic conditions. The effect of a supplementation has been investigated on fifteen recreationally-active male athletes during a randomized, double-blind and crossover clinical investigation. The Wingate test, an inducer of an unbalanced metabolism associated to oxidative stress, was used to assess maximum anaerobic power during a high-intensity exercise on a cycle ergometer. Supplementation with PerfLoad^® correlated with a significant increase in total power output (5%), maximal peak power output (3.7%), and average power developed (5%), without inducing more fatigue or greater heart rate. Instead, oxidative homeostasis was stabilized in supplemented subjects. Such results demonstrated that PerfLoad^® is a natural and efficient solution capable of, similarly to training benefits, helping athletes to improve their physical performance, while balancing their metabolism and reducing exercise-induced oxidative stress.

Effect of low dose, short-term creatine supplementation on muscle power output in elite youth soccer players

Background

To determine the effects of a low dose, short-term Creatine monohydrate (Cr) supplementation (0.03 g.kg.d⁻¹ during 14 d) on muscle power output in elite youth soccer players.

Methods

Using a two-group matched, double blind, placebo-controlled design, nineteen male soccer players (mean age = 17.0 ± 0.5 years) were randomly assigned to either Cr (N = 9) or placebo (N = 10) group. Before and after supplementation, participants performed a 30s Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT) to assess peak power output (PPO), mean power output (MPO), fatigue index (FI), and total work.

Results

There were significant increases in both PPO and MPO after the Cr supplementation period (P ≤ 0.05) but not the placebo period. There were also significant increases in total work, but not FI, after the Cr supplementation and placebo periods (P ≤ 0.05). Notably, there were differences in total work between the Cr and placebo groups after (P ≤ 0.05) but not before the 14 d supplementation period.

Conclusion

There is substantial evidence to indicate that a low-dose, short-term oral Cr supplementation beneficially affected muscle power output in elite youth soccer players.

Comparison between Standing Broad Jump test and Wingate test for assessing lower limb anaerobic power in elite sportsmen

BACKGROUND

Lower limb explosive power is an important motor quality for sporting performance and indicates use of anaerobic energy systems like stored ATP and Creatine phosphate system. Weightlifting, Fencing and Wrestling use it for monitoring and identification of potential sportsmen. The Wingate test and Standing Broad Jump (SBJ) test are reliable and accurate tests for its assessment. This study conducted on elite Indian sportsmen tries to analyse feasibility of use of the SBJ test in sports and military medicine when Wingate test is impractical.

METHODS

95 elite sportsmen (51 Fencers, 17 Weight lifters and 27 Wrestlers) of a sports institute were administered Wingate cycle ergometer test and SBJ under standardised conditions. The results were analysed for mass and inter-discipline correlation.

RESULTS

Analysis using Pearson's correlation showed significant positive correlation between Peak power (r = 0.446, p < 0.0001) and SBJ (distance) in all sportsmen. Inter-sport correlation showed positive correlation between SBJ and peak power (r = 0.335, p < 0.016) in Fencers and between SBJ, peak power (r = 0.686, p < 0.002) in Weightlifters. Bland-Altman plot analysis showed that about 94% pairs of peak power and SBJ were within limits of agreement for each discipline as well as among all sportsmen.

CONCLUSION

The test results show definite correlation and SBJ test can be used as a field test in performance monitoring, talent identification, military recruit screening and injury prevention.

Acute effects of kinesio taping on a 6 s maximal cycling sprint performance

Based on the hypothesis that tactile stimulation affects muscle activation levels, we theorized that taping vastus medialis and vastus lateralis muscles would improve a 6 s sprint cycling performance. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine whether the use of kinesio taping (KT) was helpful in increasing maximal-intensity cycling exercise. Sixteen active healthy subjects were enrolled in a randomized placebo, repeated measures design. All subjects were tested on a cycle ergometer under three conditions: without taping, taping along anterior thigh muscles and sham taping across the same muscle groups. Results showed a significant increase in peak power output and total work after the application compared to the condition with no tape applied (p < 0.05). No significant difference was found between the two modes of application. Our findings indicated that the tactile stimulation of KT applied longitudinally provided positive effects during a sprint cycling performance in healthy and active subjects.

Short sprints (30s) attenuate post-prandial blood glucose in young healthy males

AIMS

Low-volume, high-intensity exercise is a time-efficient method of inducing physiological responses and may also improve glucose homeostasis. Therefore, effects of two different volumes of sprint-interval cycling on post-prandial blood glucose were assessed.

METHODS

Twenty healthy young males undertook two Wingate anaerobic tests (2WAT), four Wingate anaerobic (4WAT) and without-exercise (CON) 90 min after eating a standard meal. Blood glucose was examined at 60, 90, 105, 120, 135 and 150 min post-prandially.

RESULTS

2WAT and 4WAT both accelerated the decrease of blood glucose compared with CON (P<0.05). There were significant reductions at 120 (4.45 ± 0.64 vs. 4.93 ± 0.9 vs. 5.68 ± 0.69), 135 (4.28 ± 0.50 vs. 4.48 ± 0.75 vs. 5.54 ± 0.6) and 150 min (4.64 ± 0.71 vs. 4.71 ± 0.73 vs. 5.36 ± 0.48, all P<0.05). Blood glucose at 120 min was lower after 2WAT than 4WAT (4.45 ± 0.64 vs. 4.93 ± 0.9, P<0.05), this producing a significant statistical interaction between groups and post-exercise time (P<0.005).

CONCLUSIONS

2WAT and 4WAT tests both accelerate the post-prandial decrease in blood glucose in young healthy males, 2WAT being superior to 4WAT in producing this response, even though 2WAT is easier to perform and less time consuming.

Laboratory and Field-Based Evaluation of Short-Term Effort with Maximal Intensity in Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities

Results of previous studies have not indicated clearly which tests should be used to assess short-term efforts of people with intellectual disabilities. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate laboratory and field-based tests of short-term effort with maximal intensity of subjects with intellectual disabilities. Twenty four people with intellectual disability, who trained soccer, participated in this study. The 30 s Wingate test and additionally an 8 s test with maximum intensity were performed on a bicycle ergometer. The fatigue index, maximal and mean power, relative maximal and relative mean power were measured. Overall, nine field-based tests were conducted: 5, 10 and 20 m sprints, a 20 m shuttle run, a seated medicine ball throw, a bent arm hang test, a standing broad jump, sit-ups and a hand grip test. The reliability of the 30 s and 8 s Wingate tests for subjects with intellectual disability was confirmed. Significant correlation was observed for mean power between the 30 s and 8 s tests on the bicycle ergometer at a moderate level (r >0.4). Moreover, significant correlations were indicated between the results of laboratory tests and field tests, such as the 20 m sprint, the 20 m shuttle run, the standing long jump and the medicine ball throw. The strongest correlation was in the medicine ball throw. The 30 s Wingate test is a reliable test assessing maximal effort in subjects with intellectual disability. The results of this research confirmed that the 8 s test on a bicycle ergometer had a moderate correlation with the 30 s Wingate test in this population, thus, this comparison needs further investigation to examine alternativeness of the 8 s to 30 s Wingate tests. The non-laboratory tests could be used to indirectly assess performance in short-term efforts with maximal intensity.

The relationship of aerobic capacity, anaerobic peak power and experience to performance in CrossFit exercise

CrossFit is becoming increasingly popular as a method to increase fitness and as a competitive sport in both the Unites States and Europe. However, little research on this mode of exercise has been performed to date. The purpose of the present investigation involving experienced CrossFit athletes and naïve healthy young men was to investigate the relationship of aerobic capacity and anaerobic power to performance in two representative CrossFit workouts: the first workout was 12 minutes in duration, and the second was based on the total time to complete the prescribed exercise. The participants were 32 healthy adult males, who were either naïve to CrossFit exercise or had competed in CrossFit competitions. Linear regression was undertaken to predict performance on the first workout (time) with age, group (naïve or CrossFit athlete), VO₂max and anaerobic power, which were all significant predictors (p < 0.05) in the model. The second workout (repetitions), when examined similarly using regression, only resulted in CrossFit experience as a significant predictor (p < 0.05). The results of the study suggest that a history of participation in CrossFit competition is a key component of performance in CrossFit workouts which are representative of those performed in CrossFit, and that, in at least one these workouts, aerobic capacity and anaerobic power are associated with success.

Creatine co-ingestion with carbohydrate or cinnamon extract provides no added benefit to anaerobic performance

The insulin response following carbohydrate ingestion enhances creatine transport into muscle. Cinnamon extract is promoted to have insulin-like effects, therefore this study examined if creatine co-ingestion with carbohydrates or cinnamon extract improved anaerobic capacity, muscular strength, and muscular endurance. Active young males (n = 25; 23.7 ± 2.5 y) were stratified into 3 groups: (1) creatine only (CRE); (2) creatine+ 70 g carbohydrate (CHO); or (3) creatine+ 500 mg cinnamon extract (CIN), based on anaerobic capacity (peak power·kg(-1)) and muscular strength at baseline. Three weeks of supplementation consisted of a 5 d loading phase (20 g/d) and a 16 d maintenance phase (5 g/d). Pre- and post-supplementation measures included a 30-s Wingate and a 30-s maximal running test (on a self-propelled treadmill) for anaerobic capacity. Muscular strength was measured as the one-repetition maximum 1-RM for chest, back, quadriceps, hamstrings, and leg press. Additional sets of the number of repetitions performed at 60% 1-RM until fatigue measured muscular endurance. All three groups significantly improved Wingate relative peak power (CRE: 15.4% P = .004; CHO: 14.6% P = .004; CIN: 15.7%, P = .003), and muscular strength for chest (CRE: 6.6% P < .001; CHO: 6.7% P < .001; CIN: 6.4% P < .001), back (CRE: 5.8% P < .001; CHO: 6.4% P < .001; CIN: 8.1% P < .001), and leg press (CRE: 11.7% P = .013; CHO: 10.0% P = .007; CIN: 17.3% P < .001). Only the CRE (10.4%, P = .021) and CIN (15.5%, P < .001) group improved total muscular endurance. No differences existed between groups post-supplementation. These findings demonstrate that three different methods of creatine ingestion lead to similar changes in anaerobic power, strength, and endurance.

Aerobic and anaerobic determinants of repeated sprint ability in team sports athletes

The aim of this study was to examine in team sports athletes the relationship between repeated sprint ability (RSA) indices and both aerobic and anaerobic fitness components. Sixteen team-sport players were included (age, 23.4 ± 2.3 years; weight, 71.2 ± 8.3 kg; height, 178 ± 7 cm; body mass index, 22.4 ± 2 kg · m(-2); estimated VO2max, 54.16 ± 3.5 mL · kg(-1) · min(-1)). Subjects were licensed in various team sports: soccer (n = 8), basketball (n = 5), and handball (n = 3). They performed 4 tests: the 20 m multi-stage shuttle run test (MSRT), the 30-s Wingate test (WingT), the Maximal Anaerobic Shuttle Running Test (MASRT), and the RSA test (10 repetitions of 30 m shuttle sprints (15 + 15 m with 180° change of direction) with 30 s passive recovery in between). Pearson's product moment of correlation among the different physical tests was performed. No significant correlations were found between any RSA test indices and WingT. However, negative correlations were found between MASRT and RSA total sprint time (TT) and fatigue index (FI) (r = -0.53, p < 0.05 and r = -0.65, p < 0.01, respectively). No significant relationship between VO2max and RSA peak sprint time (PT) and total sprint time (TT) was found. Nevertheless, VO2max was significantly correlated with the RSA FI (r = -0.57, p < 0.05). In conclusion, aerobic fitness is an important factor influencing the ability to resist fatigue during RSA exercise. Our results highlighted the usefulness of MASRT, in contrast to WingT, as a specific anaerobic testing procedure to identify the anaerobic energy system contribution during RSA.

The Effects of Sprint Interval vs. Continuous Endurance Training on Physiological And Metabolic Adaptations in Young Healthy Adults

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of sprint interval training (SIT) and continuous endurance training (CET) on selected anthropometric, aerobic, and anaerobic performance indices as well as the blood lipid profile, inflammatory and muscle damage markers in healthy young males. Fifteen recreationally active male volunteers (age: 21.7 ±2.2 years, body mass: 83.0 ±8.0 kg, body height: 1.82 ±0.05 m) were divided into two groups according to their initial VO₂max levels. Training programs were conducted 3 times per week for 7 weeks. The SIT program consisted of 4–6 Wingate anaerobic sprints with a 4.5 min recovery, while CET consisted of 30–50 min cycling at 60% VO₂max. Biochemical, anthropometric and fitness assessments were performed both pre and post-intervention. Significant improvements in VO₂max, anaerobic power and capacity, and VO₂ utilization during the submaximal workout and significant decreases in body fat and in waist circumference after the intervention occurred in both SIT and CET groups. Significantly greater gross efficiency was measured in the CET group. No differences in the lipid profile or serum levels of inflammatory, myocardial and skeletal muscle damage markers were observed after the training period. The study results agree with the effectiveness of a 30 s all-out training program with a reduced time commitment for anthropometric, aerobic and anaerobic adaptation and eliminate doubts about its safety as a model.

The surprising influence of family history to type 2 diabetes on anaerobic performance of young male élite athletes

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

It is known that family history to type 2 diabetes induces anthropometric changes in various populations. Regular physical activity can induce adaptations in these subjects regularizing body composition and anthropometric parameters. The aim of this study is therefore to understand if family history to type 2 diabetes affects anaerobic performance in young male élite athletes.

METHODS

Forty six young male élite athletes were tested. Thirty three without family history to type 2 diabetes (FH-) and thirteen with family history to type 2 diabetes (FH+). Anthropometric parameters, body composition, physiological parameters and athletic performance were assessed.

RESULTS

Weight (p 0,0050), BMI (p 0,0019), waist circumference (p 0,0090), hips circumference (p 0,0490) and WHR (p 0,0339) were different between the two groups, showing greater values for the FH + subjects. Body composition showed lower FM and higher FFM percentages for the FH + group compared to the FH-. Anaerobic performance tests showed differences between the groups highlighting that the FH + group had higher anaerobic performance values (Wingate test for FH + 512,77 ± 107,93 W vs Wingate test for FH- 447,94 ± 56,95 W).

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

The élite athletes with FH + showed better anaerobic performances and a higher body mass. At this stage we cannot generalise, but in a sample of athletes we tested, all who were with FH + showed both interesting and unexpected results; if confirmed, this evidence may represent a remarkable knowledge for fitness coaches and professionals who are daily dealing with track and field athletes and their performances.

Nutrient ingestion increased mTOR signaling, but not hVps34 activity in human skeletal muscle after sprint exercise

Nutrient provision after sprint exercise enhances mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling. One suggested that nutrient sensor is the class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, vacuolar protein sorting 34 (Vps34), not previously studied in human skeletal muscle. It is hypothesized that oral ingestion of essential amino acids (EAA) and carbohydrates (Carb) increases Vps34 activity and mTOR signaling in human skeletal (hVps34) muscle after sprint exercise. Nine subjects were performed 3 × 30-sec all-out sprints with or without ingestion of EAA + Carb or placebo drinks in a randomized order with a month interval. Muscle biopsies were performed at rest and 140 min after last sprint and analyzed for p-mTOR, p-p70S6k, p-eEF2 and for hVps34 activity and hVps34 protein content. Venous blood samples were collected and analyzed for amino acids, glucose, lactate, and insulin. During the sprint exercise session, EAA, glucose, and insulin in blood increased significantly more in EAA + Carb than in placebo. P-mTOR and p-p70S6k were significantly increased above rest in EAA + Carb (P = 0.03, P = 0.007) 140 min after last sprint, but not in placebo. Activity and protein expression of hVps34 were not significantly changed from rest in EAA + Carb 140 min after the last sprint. However, hVps34 activity and protein expression tended to increase in placebo (both P = 0.08). In conclusion, on the contrary to the hypothesis, no increase in activation of hVps34 was found following sprint exercise in EAA + Carb condition. In spite of this, the results support an activation of mTOR during this condition. However, this does not exclude the permissive role of hVps34 in mediating the amino acid-induced activation of mTOR and muscle protein synthesis.

The effects of an 8-week multicomponent inpatient treatment program on body composition and anaerobic fitness in overweight and obese children and adolescents

Background

High intensity exercise is considered as an effective means for reducing body fat. The aims of the present study were to investigate (1) whether body mass would be lost and body composition would change and (2) whether variables of anaerobic fitness prior to the intervention period would be related to loss of body mass and changes in body composition in overweight and obese children and adolescents.

Methods

A total of 28 children and adolescents (19 boys, 9 girls) attended an 8-week multicomponent inpatient program. Caloric intake was based on the subject’s weight and a daily energy deficit of ~500 kcal was targeted. At the beginning and at the end of the program, variables of anaerobic fitness were assessed using Wingate tests. Body composition was measured before and after the program using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry.

Results

Body mass decreased by 11.4% ± 1.6% in boys and by 11.0% ± 2.8% in girls (P < 0.001). Fat mass decreased by 23.8% ± 6.1% in boys and by 21.5% ± 5.2% in girls (P < 0.001). The decrease in fat mass was associated with the decrease in body mass in boys (r = 0.54, P = 0.017) but not in girls (P > 0.05). The decrease in body mass and the decrease in fat mass were neither associated with overall energy expenditure nor with the energy deficit in both genders (P > 0.05). Mean power in W/kg increased in the Wingate tests by 95.4% ± 109.1% in boys and by 100.0% ± 119.9% in girls (P < 0.001).

Conclusions

Adjustments of the chronically positive imbalance of energy intake and energy expenditure of obese children and adolescents living in obesogenic environments should be addressed in a multisectoral approach. Future research in multicomponent childhood and adolescent weight loss programs should be directed towards a better understanding of the underlying complex dynamics in energy homeostasis which promote weight loss and changes in body composition due to high intensity exercise interventions.

The Effects of Music on High-intensity Short-term Exercise in Well Trained Athletes

Purpose

The purpose of this investigation was to assess the effects of listening to music during warm-up on short-term supramaximal performances during the 30-s Wingate test in highly trained athletes.

Methods

Twelve young male athletes (20.6±1.8 yrs, 177±4.4 cm and 72.3±5.3 kg) underwent two Wingate tests in separate sessions with a recovery period of 48 h in-between, either after a 10 min of warm-up with (MWU) or without (NMWU) music. High tempo music (>120 to 140bpm) was selected for the study. Heart rate (HR) and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded after the warm-up (for HR = average of warm-up) and immediately after the Wingate test.

Results

HR, RPE and the fatigue index during the Wingate test are not affected by the incorporation of music during warm-up. However, power output (P_peak and P_mean) was significantly higher after MWU than NMWU (P<0.05). The relative increases were 4.1 ± 3.6 and 4.0 ± 3.7 W·kg⁻¹ for P_peak and P_mean respectively. These findings demonstrated the beneficial effect of music during warm-up on short-term supramaximal performances.

Conclusions

As it's a legal method and an additional aid, music may be used during warm-up before performing activities requiring powerful lower limbs’ muscles contractions during short-term supramaximal exercises.

The relationship between the yo-yo tests, anaerobic performance and aerobic performance in young soccer players

The purposes of this study were to determine the relationship between performance in the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 1 (YIRT1), the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 2 (YIRT2) and the Yo-Yo endurance test (continuous) (YET) with maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max) and Wingate anaerobic performance (WaNT) test results in young soccer players (age 15.00 ± 0.0 years, body height 176.3 ± 4.2 cm and body mass 68.1 ± 3.6 kg). An ergospirometry device was used during the treadmill test (TRT) to determine VO₂max. At the end of the study, significant differences were found between the Yo-Yo tests and TRT in terms of HRmax (TRT = 195,92, YIRT1 = 197,83, YIRT2 = 198,5 YET = 198) (p > 0.05). While there were moderate correlations between VO₂max and YIRT 1–2 performances (respectively, r = 0.56, r = 0.53), there was only a weak relationship between VO₂max and YET performance (r = 0.43) (distance covered). There were also moderate significant negative correlations between performance in the YIRT2 and peak power measured in the WaNT (r = −0.55), although there were no significant correlations between performance in the three tests and average power. A moderate negative correlation was found between performance in the YIRT2 and Fatigue index (FI) (r = −0,66). In conclusion, the YIRT2 may be a more suitable field test for determining both aerobic and anaerobic performance in soccer players.

Repeated Sprint Performance in Male and Female College Athletes Matched for VO2max Relative to Fat Free Mass

The purpose of this study was to examine gender differences in repeated sprint exercise (RSE) performance among male and female athletes matched for VO2max relative to FFM (VO2max FFM). Thirty nine male and female college athletes performed a graded exercise test for VO2max and hydrostatic weighing to determine FFM. From the results, 11 pairs of males and females matched for VO2max FFM (mean ± SD; 58.3 ± 4.3 and 58.9 ± 4.6 ml·kg FFM-1·min-1; men and women, respectively) were identified. On a separate day, matched participants performed a RSE protocol that consisted of five 6-sec cycle sprints with 30-sec recovery periods, followed by 5-min active recovery and a 30-sec all-out sprint. Repeated 6-sec sprint performance did not differ between men and women; both maintained power output (PO) until sprint 4. POFFM (W·kg-1 FFM) did not differ between men and women during the five sprints. During the 30-sec sprint, men achieved a lower peak POFFM than women (11.7 ± 1.5 vs 13.2 ± 1.2); however, the decline in POFFM over 30 sec was greater in women. VO2 (ml·kg FFM-1·min-1) was lower in men during recovery (24.4 ± 3.8 vs 28.7 ± 5.7) and at the beginning (29.2 ± 4.0 vs 34.7 ± 4.9) and end (49.4 ± 5.0 vs 52.3 ± 4.0). of the 30-sec sprint. These data indicate that men and women with similar aerobic capacities do not respond differently to short repeated sprints but may differ in their ability to recover and perform sprints of longer duration.

A practical model of low-volume high-intensity interval training induces performance and metabolic adaptations that resemble 'all-out' sprint interval training

Recently, a novel type of high-intensity interval training known as sprint interval training has demonstrated increases in aerobic and anaerobic performance with very low time commitment. However, this type of training program is unpractical for general populations. The present study compared the impact of a low-volume high-intensity interval training to a "all-out" sprint interval training. Twenty-four active young males were recruited and randomized into three groups: (G1: 3-5 cycling bouts ˟ 30-s all-out with 4 min recovery; G2: 6- 10 cycling bouts ˟ 125% Pmax with 2 min recovery) and a non-trained control group. They all performed a VO2max test, a time to exhaustion at Pmax (Tmax) and a Wingate test before and after the intervention. Capillary blood lactate was taken at rest, 3, and 20 min after the Wingate trial. Training was performed 3 sessions per week for 4 weeks. In G1, significant improvements (p < 0.05) following training were found in VO2max (9.6%), power at VO2max (12.8%), Tmax (48.4%), peak power output (10.3%) and mean power output (17.1%). In G2, significant improvements following training were found in VO2max (9.7%), power at VO2max (16.1%), Tmax (54.2%), peak power output (7.4%; p < 0.05), but mean power output did not change significantly. Blood lactate recovery (20(th) min) significantly decreased in G1 and G2 when compared with pre-testing and the CON group (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the results of the current study agree with earlier work demonstrating the effectiveness of 30-s all-out training program to aerobic and anaerobic adaptations. Of substantial interest is that the low volume high intensity training provides similar results but involves only half the intensity with double the repetitions. Key pointsGiven the markedly lower training volume in the training groups, our results suggest that intense interval training is indeed a time-efficient strategy to induce rapid metabolic and performance adaptations.The results demonstrate that a practical low-volume HIT program is effective for improving metabolic and performance adaptations that resemble many of the same performance gains occurred in all-out SIT protocol.

Anaerobic capacity may not be determined by critical power model in elite table tennis players

The aim of the present study was to verify the applicability of anaerobic work capacity (AWC) determined from the critical power model in elite table tennis players. Eight male international level table tennis players participated in the study. The tests undertaken were: 1) A critical frequency test used to determinate the anaerobic work capacity; 2) Wingate tests were performed using leg and arm ergometers. AWC corresponded to 99.5 ± 29.1 table tennis balls. AWC was not related to peak (r = -0.25), mean (r = -0.02), relative peak (r = -0.49) or relative mean power (r = 0.01), nor fatigue index (r = -0.52) (Wingate leg ergometer). Similar correlations for peak (r = -0.34), mean (r = -0.04), relative peak (r = -0.49), relative mean power (r = -0.14) and peak blood lactate concentration (r = -0.08) were determined in the Wingate arm ergometer test. Based on these results the AWC determined by a modified critical power test was not a good index for measurement of anaerobic capacity in table tennis players. Key pointsAnaerobic work capacity (AWC) was not good index of anaerobic capacity in table tennis.AWC determined using the table tennis ergometer showed low correlations with the Wingate test measures for cycle and arm ergometry.A sport-specific protocol is required for measuring anaerobic capacity in table tennis.

The relationship between body composition and anaerobic performance of elite young wrestlers

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between body composition and anaerobic performance in young elite wrestlers.

METHOD

Eight female (age = 16.2 ± 1.1 yrs) and 8 male (age = 17.3 ± 0.9 yrs) wrestlers from the Turkish cadet and junior national team participated in this study. Fat free mass (FFM) and percent fat mass (%FM) were carried out through electric bioimpedance. Anaerobic performance was assessed by the Wingate test (load was calculated as 0.090 kg x.kg(-1) body mass). FFM was greater in male wrestlers [65.4 ± 12.3 (kg)] than female wrestlers (45.1 ± 4.6 (kg) p < 0.01). %FM was lower in male wrestlers (9.7 ± 6.3) than female wrestlers (18.5 ± 2.8; p < 0.01). Peak power was significantly higher in male wrestlers than female wrestlers (8.5 ± 1.0 W·kg(-1) vs. 6.8 ± 0.6 W·kg(-1); p < 0.01). Mean power was significantly correlated with FFM in both genders (r = 0.73 p < 0.05 in female; r= 0.90 p < 0.05 in male). No relationship was obtained between anaerobic parameters and %FM. In conclusion, our result demonstrated no association between anaerobic parameters and %FM. Wrestlers and their coaches should take into account FFM rather than %FM for higher anaerobic performance. Key pointsMean power and fat free mass association was obtained from both genders.Anaerobic performance parameters obtained from Wingate Test were positively associated with fat free mass but not % fat mass in elite young wrestlers.% FM values were 18.5 in young female wrestlers, and it was 9.7 in male wrestlers.