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Warneke K, Lohmann LH, Behm DG, Wirth K, Keiner M, Schiemann S, Wilke J. Effects of Chronic Static Stretching on Maximal Strength and Muscle Hypertrophy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis with Meta-Regression. Sports Med Open 2024; 10:45. [PMID: 38637473 PMCID: PMC11026323 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-024-00706-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Increases in maximal strength and muscle volume represent central aims of training interventions. Recent research suggested that the chronic application of stretch may be effective in inducing hypertrophy. The present systematic review therefore aimed to syntheisize the evidence on changes of strength and muscle volume following chronic static stretching. METHODS Three data bases were sceened to conduct a systematic review with meta-analysis. Studies using randomized, controlled trials with longitudinal (≥ 2 weeks) design, investigating strength and muscle volume following static stretching in humans, were included. Study quality was rated by two examiners using the PEDro scale. RESULTS A total of 42 studies with 1318 cumulative participants were identified. Meta-analyses using robust variance estimation showed small stretch-mediated maximal strength increases (d = 0.30 p < 0.001) with stretching duration and intervention time as significant moderators. Including all studies, stretching induced small magnitude, but significant hypertrophy effects (d = 0.20). Longer stretching durations and intervention periods as well as higher training frequencies revealed small (d = 0.26-0.28), but significant effects (p < 0.001-0.005), while lower dosage did not reach the level of significance (p = 0.13-0.39). CONCLUSIONS While of minor effectiveness, chronic static stretching represents a possible alternative to resistance training when aiming to improve strength and increase muscle size. As a dose-response relationship may exist, higher stretch durations and frequencies as well as long program durations should be further elaborated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantin Warneke
- Institute of Human Movement Science, Sport and Health, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- Department of Movement Sciences, University of Klagenfurt, Klagenfurt am Wörthersee, Austria
| | - Lars Hubertus Lohmann
- Department of Human Motion Science and Exercise Physiology, Friedrich Schiller University, 07743, Jena, Germany.
| | - David G Behm
- School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Newfoundland and Labrador, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Canada
| | - Klaus Wirth
- University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, Wiener Neustadt, Austria
| | - Michael Keiner
- Department of Sport Science, German University of Health & Sport, Ismaning, Germany
| | - Stephan Schiemann
- Institute of Exercise, Sport and Health, Leuphana University, Lüneburg, Germany
| | - Jan Wilke
- Department of Movement Sciences, University of Klagenfurt, Klagenfurt am Wörthersee, Austria
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Warneke K, Wirth K, Keiner M, Lohmann LH, Hillebrecht M, Brinkmann A, Wohlann T, Schiemann S. Comparison of the effects of long-lasting static stretching and hypertrophy training on maximal strength, muscle thickness and flexibility in the plantar flexors. Eur J Appl Physiol 2023; 123:1773-1787. [PMID: 37029826 PMCID: PMC10363083 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-023-05184-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 04/09/2023]
Abstract
Maximal strength measured via maximal voluntary contraction is known as a key factor in competitive sports performance as well as injury risk reduction and rehabilitation. Maximal strength and hypertrophy are commonly trained by performing resistance training programs. However, literature shows that long-term, long-lasting static stretching interventions can also produce significant improvements in maximal voluntary contraction. The aim of this study is to compare increases in maximal voluntary contraction, muscle thickness and flexibility after 6 weeks of stretch training and conventional hypertrophy training. Sixty-nine (69) active participants (f = 30, m = 39; age 27.4 ± 4.4 years, height 175.8 ± 2.1 cm, and weight 79.5 ± 5.9 kg) were divided into three groups: IG1 stretched the plantar flexors continuously for one hour per day, IG2 performed hypertrophy training for the plantar flexors (5 × 10-12 reps, three days per week), while CG did not undergo any intervention. Maximal voluntary contraction, muscle thickness, pennation angle and flexibility were the dependent variables. The results of a series of two-way ANOVAs show significant interaction effects (p < 0.05) for maximal voluntary contraction (ƞ2 = 0.143-0.32, p < 0.006), muscle thickness (ƞ2 = 0.11-0.14, p < 0.021), pennation angle (ƞ2 = 0.002-0.08, p = 0.077-0.625) and flexibility (ƞ2 = 0.089-0.21, p < 0.046) for both the stretch and hypertrophy training group without significant differences (p = 0.37-0.99, d = 0.03-0.4) between both intervention groups. Thus, it can be hypothesized that mechanical tension plays a crucial role in improving maximal voluntary contraction and muscle thickness irrespective whether long-lasting stretching or hypertrophy training is used. Results show that for the calf muscle, the use of long-lasting stretching interventions can be deemed an alternative to conventional resistance training if the aim is to increase maximal voluntary contraction, muscle thickness and flexibility. However, the practical application seems to be strongly limited as a weekly stretching duration of up to 7 h a week is opposed by 3 × 15 min of common resistance training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantin Warneke
- Institute for Exercise, Sport and Health, Leuphana University, 21335, Lüneburg, Germany.
| | - Klaus Wirth
- University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, Wiener Neustadt, Austria
| | - Michael Keiner
- Department of Sport Science, German University of Health and Sport, 85737, Ismaning, Germany
| | - Lars H Lohmann
- Institute of Sports Science, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, 26129, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Martin Hillebrecht
- University Sports Center, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, 26129, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Anna Brinkmann
- Assistive Systems and Medical Device Technology, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, 26129, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Tim Wohlann
- Institute for Exercise, Sport and Health, Leuphana University, 21335, Lüneburg, Germany
| | - Stephan Schiemann
- Institute for Exercise, Sport and Health, Leuphana University, 21335, Lüneburg, Germany
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Kurobe Y, Momose K. Use of force-velocity relationship to estimate the one-repetition maximum leg press exercise among young females. J Phys Ther Sci 2023; 35:247-251. [PMID: 36866008 PMCID: PMC9974324 DOI: 10.1589/jpts.35.247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 03/04/2023] Open
Abstract
[Purpose] This study aimed to determine the concurrent validity of using force at a velocity of 0 m/s when estimating the one-repetition maximum leg press and develop and assess the accuracy of an equation to estimate the one-repetition maximum value. [Participants and Methods] Ten untrained healthy females participated. We directly measured the one-repetition maximum during the one leg press exercise and developed the individual force-velocity relationship using the trial with the highest mean propulsive velocity at 20% and 70% of the one-repetition maximum. We then used the force at a velocity of 0 m/s to estimate the measured one-repetition maximum. [Results] The force at a velocity of 0 m/s was strongly correlated with the measured one-repetition maximum. A simple linear regression analysis revealed a significant estimated regression equation. The multiple coefficient of the determination of this equation was 0.77, while the standard error of the estimate of the equation was 12.5 kg. [Conclusion] The estimation method based on the force-velocity relationship was highly valid and accurate at estimating the one-repetition maximum for the one leg press exercise. The method provides valuable information to instruct untrained participants at the start of resistance training programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasushi Kurobe
- Department of Rehabilitation, Fujimi Kogen Medical Center,
Japan, Department of Health Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine,
Shinshu University, Japan
| | - Kimito Momose
- Department of Physical Therapy, School of Health Sciences,
Shinshu University: 3-1-1 Asahi, Matsumoto-shi, Nagano 390-8621, Japan,Corresponding author. Kimito Momose (E-mail: )
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Abstract
The purpose of this study is to compare and analyze the difference of isokinetic muscle functions, anaerobic capabilities, pedaling power and maximum strength according to race-class of Korea racing cyclists. The participants in this study were 57 racing cyclist candidates who graduated from the Korea racing school. One year after graduation, we confirmed race-class of candidates and they were divided into three groups: the first-class racer group (FC, n=14), second-class racer group (SC, n=29), third-class racer group (TC, n=14). The isokinetic muscle strength of trunk and knee flexion/extension was measured using HUMAC NORM and basic physical strength such as squat and bench press was analyzed by Ariel device. As results of this study, % Fat (percentage of body fat) in FC group was the lowest compared to other groups. Isokinetic knee flexion strength was higher in FC group than SC and TC racer groups. Peak and average pedaling power as well as maximum muscle strength were significantly higher in FC group than in other groups. Our findings suggest new evidence that pedaling power and isokinetic muscle strength might be closely associated with race-class of Korea racing cyclists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Hee Park
- Department of Kinesiology, College of Natural Science, Jeju National University, Jeju, Korea
| | - Tae-Beom Seo
- Department of Kinesiology, College of Natural Science, Jeju National University, Jeju, Korea
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Park JH, Kim JE, Yoo JI, Kim YP, Kim EH, Seo TB. Comparison of maximum muscle strength and isokinetic knee and core muscle functions according to pedaling power difference of racing cyclist candidates. J Exerc Rehabil 2019; 15:401-406. [PMID: 31316932 PMCID: PMC6614766 DOI: 10.12965/jer.1938180.090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate differences of maximum muscle strength and isokinetic knee and core muscle functions according to pedaling power of racing cyclist candidate. Subjects for this study were 200 racing cyclist candidates and divided into four groups: top 10% peak power group (TPP, n=20), low 10% peak power group (LPP, n=20), top 10% average power group (TAP, n=20), and low 10% average power group (LAP, n=20). The maximum muscle strength was consisted of grip strength, bench press and squat measured by Ariel device, and isokinetic knee and core muscle functions were analyzed by Humac Norm device. Significant differences between groups were determined with one-way repeated analysis of variance. As the result of this study, TPP and TAP groups showed significantly decreased body-fat mass and increased free fat mass when compared to LPP and LAP groups. The maximum strength of grip and squat was significantly higher in TPP and TAP than in other groups. Isokinetic knee extension and flexion strength was higher in TPP and TAP groups as well as isokinetic trunk extension and flexion functions were highest in TPP group. Thus, our findings suggest new evidence that muscle mass, maximal muscle strength, and isokinetic muscle functions might be important predictors of racing cyclist performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Hee Park
- Department of Kinesiology, College of Natural Science, Jeju National University, Jeju, Korea
| | - Ji-Eun Kim
- Department of Kinesiology, College of Natural Science, Jeju National University, Jeju, Korea
| | - Joo-In Yoo
- Department of Kinesiology, College of Natural Science, Jeju National University, Jeju, Korea
| | - Young-Pyo Kim
- Department of Kinesiology, College of Natural Science, Jeju National University, Jeju, Korea
| | - Eon-Ho Kim
- Department of Sports Science, Korea Institute of Sport Science, Seoul, Korea
| | - Tae-Beom Seo
- Department of Kinesiology, College of Natural Science, Jeju National University, Jeju, Korea
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Petré H, Wernstål F, Mattsson CM. Effects of Flywheel Training on Strength-Related Variables: a Meta-analysis. Sports Med Open 2018; 4:55. [PMID: 30547232 PMCID: PMC6292829 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-018-0169-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Strength and power development are abilities important for athletic performance in many sports. Generally, resistance training based on gravity is used to improve these qualities. Flywheel training instead utilizes kinetic energy transferred to a flywheel. This allows for eccentric overload and variable resistance throughout the movement. The aim of this review was to identify the effects of flywheel training on multiple strength-related variables affecting athletic performance. The meta-analysis investigates the effects on (1) muscle growth (cross-sectional area (CSA) and volume/mass), (2) maximum dynamic strength, (3) development of power, (4) development of horizontal movement, and (5) development of vertical movement. METHODS The meta-analysis includes 20 experimental studies that met the inclusion criteria. The quality of included studies was ranked according to the PEDro scale. Possible bias was identified in Funnel plot analyses. To enable the compilation of all results analyses, the random effect model was carried out using the software Review Manager Version 5.3 and presented with Forest plots. RESULTS Flywheel training for a period of 4-24 weeks shows statistically significant increases in all strength aspects. Effect sizes were for hypertrophy, CSA 0.59; volume/mass 0.59; maximum strength 1.33; power 1.19; horizontal 1.01 and vertical movement 0.85. The evidence is particularly strong for beneficial effects from flywheel training in the development of maximal strength and power in trained younger individuals, and utilization of this training modality in shorter more intensive blocks. CONCLUSIONS Flywheel training is an effective method for improving several aspects of strength and power with importance for sports performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Petré
- Åstrand Laboratory of Work Physiology, The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Fredrik Wernstål
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - C. Mikael Mattsson
- Åstrand Laboratory of Work Physiology, The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
- Silicon Valley Exercise Analytics, Menlo Park, CA USA
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Krčmárová B, Krčmár M, Schwarzová M, Chlebo P, Chlebová Z, Židek R, Kolesárová A, Zbyňovská K, Kováčiková E, Walker S. The effects of 12-week progressive strength training on strength, functional capacity, metabolic biomarkers, and serum hormone concentrations in healthy older women: morning versus evening training. Chronobiol Int 2018; 35:1490-1502. [PMID: 29985671 DOI: 10.1080/07420528.2018.1493490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Previous findings suggest that performing strength training (ST) in the evening may provide greater benefit for young individuals. However, this may not be optimal for the older population. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a 12-week ST program performed in the morning vs. evening on strength, functional capacity, metabolic biomarker and basal hormone concentrations in older women. Thirty-one healthy older women (66 ± 4 years, 162 ± 4 cm, 75 ± 13 kg) completed the study. Participants trained in the morning (M) (07:30, n = 10), in the evening (E) (18:00, n = 10), or acted as a non-training control group (C) (n = 11). Both intervention groups performed whole-body strength training with 3 sets of 10-12 repetitions with 2-3 minutes rest between sets. All groups were measured before and after the 12-week period with; dynamic leg press and seated-row 6-repetition maximum (6-RM) and functional capacity tests (30-second chair stands and arm curl test, Timed Up and Go), as well as whole-body skeletal muscle mass (SMM) (kg) and fat mass (FM-kg, FM%) assessed by bioelectrical impedance (BIA). Basal blood samples (in the intervention groups only) taken before and after the intervention assessed low-density lipoprotein (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein (HDL-C), blood glucose (GLU), triglycerides (TG), high-sensitive C-reactive protein (hsCRP) concentrations and total antioxidant status (TAS) after a 12 h fast. Hormone analysis included prolactin (PRL), progesterone (P) estradiol (ESTR), testosterone (T), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH). While C showed no changes in any variable, both M and E significantly improved leg press (+ 46 ± 22% and + 21 ± 12%, respectively; p < 0.001) and seated-row (+ 48 ± 21% and + 42 ± 18%, respectively; p < 0.001) 6-RM, as well as all functional capacity outcomes (p < 0.01) due to training. M were the only group to increase muscle mass (+ 3 ± 2%, p < 0.01). Both M and E group significantly (p < 0.05) decreased GLU (-4 ± 6% and -8 ± 10%, respectively), whereas significantly greater decrease was observed in the E compared to the M group (p < 0.05). Only E group significantly decreased TG (-17 ± 25%, p < 0.01), whereas M group increased (+ 15%, p < 0.01). The difference in TG between the groups favored E compared to M group (p < 0.01). These results suggest that short-term "hypertrophic" ST alone mainly improves strength and functional capacity performance, but it influences metabolic and hormonal profile of healthy older women to a lesser extent. In this group of previously untrained older women, time-of-day did not have a major effect on outcome variables, but some evidence suggests that training in the morning may be more beneficial for muscle hypertrophy (i.e. only M significantly increased muscle mass and had larger effect size (M: g = 2 vs. E: g = 0.5).
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Affiliation(s)
- Bohumila Krčmárová
- a Department of Physical Education and Sports , Constantine the Philosopher University , Nitra , Slovakia
| | - Matúš Krčmár
- b Hamar Institute for Human Performance, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport , Comenius University , Bratislava , Slovakia
| | - Marianna Schwarzová
- c Department of Human Nutrition, Faculty of Agrobiology and Food Resources , Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra , Nitra , Slovakia
| | - Peter Chlebo
- c Department of Human Nutrition, Faculty of Agrobiology and Food Resources , Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra , Nitra , Slovakia
| | - Zuzana Chlebová
- c Department of Human Nutrition, Faculty of Agrobiology and Food Resources , Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra , Nitra , Slovakia
| | - Radoslav Židek
- d Department of Food Hygiene and Safety, Faculty of Agrobiology and Food Resources , Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra , Nitra , Slovakia
| | - Adriana Kolesárová
- e Department of Animal Physiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences , Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra , Nitra , Slovakia
| | - Katarína Zbyňovská
- e Department of Animal Physiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences , Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra , Nitra , Slovakia
| | - Eva Kováčiková
- f AgroBioTech Research Centre , Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra , Nitra , Slovakia
| | - Simon Walker
- g Biology of Physical Activity, Neuromuscular Research Center, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences , University of Jyväskylä , Jyväskylä , Finland
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