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Zhao L, Ma D, Wang L, Su X, Feng L, Zhu L, Chen Y, Hao Y, Wang X, Feng J. Metabolic changes with the occurrence of atherosclerotic plaques and the effects of statins. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1301051. [PMID: 38143759 PMCID: PMC10739339 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1301051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Atherosclerosis is a common cardiovascular disease caused by the abnormal expression of multiple factors and genes influenced by both environmental and genetic factors. The primary manifestation of atherosclerosis is plaque formation, which occurs when inflammatory cells consume excess lipids, affecting their retention and modification within the arterial intima. This triggers endothelial cell (EC) activation, immune cell infiltration, vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation and migration, foam cell formation, lipid streaks, and fibrous plaque development. These processes can lead to vascular wall sclerosis, lumen stenosis, and thrombosis. Immune cells, ECs, and VSMCs in atherosclerotic plaques undergo significant metabolic changes and inflammatory responses. The interaction of cytokines and chemokines secreted by these cells leads to the onset, progression, and regression of atherosclerosis. The regulation of cell- or cytokine-based immune responses is a novel therapeutic approach for atherosclerosis. Statins are currently the primary pharmacological agents utilised for managing unstable plaques owing to their ability to enhance endothelial function, regulate VSMC proliferation and apoptosis by reducing cholesterol levels, and mitigate the expression and activity of inflammatory cytokines. In this review, we provide an overview of the metabolic changes associated with atherosclerosis, describe the effects of inflammatory responses on atherosclerotic plaques, and discuss the mechanisms through which statins contribute to plaque stabilisation. Additionally, we examine the role of statins in combination with other drugs in the management of atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Di Ma
- Bethune First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - LiJuan Wang
- Bethune First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, China
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He Y, Qin C, Sun Z, Liu Z, Chen Y, Meng K. Atomic force microscopy application to study of the biomechanical properties of the aortic intima in the context of early atherosclerosis. Microsc Res Tech 2022; 85:3411-3417. [PMID: 35804436 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.24196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis is characterized by the infiltration of macrophages, accumulation of lipids, activation of endothelial cells and synthesis of extracellular matrix by vascular smooth muscle cells. However, there have been few atomic force microscopy (AFM) studies of the aortic intima in situ in the context of atherosclerosis. By employing a customized liquid cell for AFM, we investigated the aortic intima obtained from male C57BL/6 ApoE-deficient mice (ApoE-/- ) aged 14 weeks and male C57BL/6 ApoE-sufficient mice (ApoE+/+ ) aged between 18 and 26 weeks that were fed a high-fat and high-cholesterol diet for 4 weeks and performed force spectroscopy mapping of the biomechanical properties of the intima. In the aortas of ApoE-deficient mice, the intima became stiffer than that of ApoE-sufficient mice. In addition, the cytoskeleton of endothelial cells was enlarged, and extracellular matrix accumulated. The biomechanical properties of the aortic intima are altered in early atherogenesis, which may be induced by the enlargement of the endothelial cell cytoskeleton and the increased synthesis of extracellular matrix by activated smooth muscle cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin He
- Emergency Department, Capital Medical University Affiliated Anzhen Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Chuanyu Qin
- Department of Cardiology of Second Affiliated Hospital of Qiqihaer Medical Collage, Qiqihar, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhifu Sun
- Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Capital Medical University Affiliated Anzhen Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Zesen Liu
- Department of Cardiology of Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Chen
- Department of Cardiology, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Kang Meng
- Department of Cardiology, Capital Medical University Affiliated Anzhen Hospital, Beijing, China
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Amiya E, Watanabe M, Takeda N, Saito T, Shiga T, Hosoya Y, Nakao T, Imai Y, Manabe I, Nagai R, Komuro I, Maemura K. Angiotensin II impairs endothelial nitric-oxide synthase bioavailability under free cholesterol-enriched conditions via intracellular free cholesterol-rich membrane microdomains. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:14497-14509. [PMID: 23548909 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.448522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Vascular endothelial function is impaired in hypercholesterolemia partly because of injury by modified LDL. In addition to modified LDL, free cholesterol (FC) is thought to play an important role in the development of endothelial dysfunction, although the precise mechanisms remain to be elucidated. The aim of this study was to clarify the mechanisms of endothelial dysfunction induced by an FC-rich environment. Loading cultured human aortic endothelial cells with FC induced the formation of vesicular structures composed of FC-rich membranes. Raft proteins such as phospho-caveolin-1 (Tyr-14) and small GTPase Rac were accumulated toward FC-rich membranes around vesicular structures. In the presence of these vesicles, angiotensin II-induced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was considerably enhanced. This ROS shifted endothelial NOS (eNOS) toward vesicle membranes and vesicles with a FC-rich domain trafficked toward perinuclear late endosomes/lysosomes, which resulted in the deterioration of eNOS Ser-1177 phosphorylation and NO production. Angiotensin II-induced ROS decreased the bioavailability of eNOS under the FC-enriched condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eisuke Amiya
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan
| | - Masafumi Watanabe
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan
| | - Norihiko Takeda
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Saito
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan
| | - Taro Shiga
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan
| | - Yumiko Hosoya
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan
| | - Tomoko Nakao
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan
| | - Yasushi Imai
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan
| | - Ichiro Manabe
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan
| | - Ryozo Nagai
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan; Jichi Medical University, Shimotsuke 329-0498, Japan
| | - Issei Komuro
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan; Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Koji Maemura
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki 852-8102, Japan.
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Simionescu M. Implications of early structural-functional changes in the endothelium for vascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2006; 27:266-74. [PMID: 17138941 DOI: 10.1161/01.atv.0000253884.13901.e4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
By location, between the blood and tissues and the multiple functions, the endothelial cells (ECs) play a major role in securing body homeostasis. The ECs sense all variations occurring in the plasma and interstitial fluid, and respond (function of intensity), initially by modulation of their constitutive functions, then by dysfunction, expressed by temporarily altered functions and a phenotypic shift, and ultimately by injury/death. In dyslipidemia/hyperglycemia, the initial response of EC is the modulation of 2 constitutive functions: permeability and biosynthesis. Increased transcytosis of plasma beta-lipoproteins leads to their accumulation within the hyperplasic basal lamina, interaction with matrix proteins, and conversion to modified and reassembled lipoproteins (MRL). This generates a multipart inflammatory process and EC dysfunction characterized by expression of new cell adhesion molecules and MCP-1 that trigger T-lymphocytes and monocyte recruitment, diapedesis, and homing within the subendothelium where activated macrophages become foam cells. The latter, together with the subendothelial accrual of MRL, growth factors, cytokines, and chemokines, and accretion of smooth muscle cells of various sources lead to atheroma formation; in advanced disease, the EC overlaying atheroma take up lipids, become EC-derived foam cells, and the cytotoxic ambient ultimately conducts to EC apoptosis. Understanding the mechanisms of EC dysfunction is a prerequisite for EC-targeted therapy to reduce the incidence of cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Simionescu
- Institute of Cellular Biology and Pathology Nicolae Simionescu, 8, B. P. Hasdeu Street, Bucharest, Romania.
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Elleder M. Sequelae of storage in Fabry disease--pathology and comparison with other lysosomal storage diseases. Acta Paediatr 2003; 92:46-53; discussion 45. [PMID: 14989466 DOI: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2003.tb00222.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIM To evaluate the sequelae of the lysosomal storage of globotriaosylceramide (Gb3) in a series of patients with Fabry disease. METHODS Biopsy and post-mortem samples from 12 patients with Fabry disease were examined microscopically, including, in some cases, immunohistochemistry and electron microscopy. Where possible, comparisons were made with other lysosomal storage disorders. RESULTS Storage of Gb3 in cardiocytes leads commonly to progressive hypertrophy, which is a non-specific phenomenon also observed in other lysosomal storage disorders. Capillary endothelial storage was associated with a tendency for capillary basement membrane multiplication. In the single angiokeratoma studied, the basement membrane was rudimentary. Sinusoids in the adrenal cortex and liver displayed either a slight degree of storage or were unaffected. The glomeruli of the kidney exhibited focal hyalinization starting in the mesangial region. Proximal tubular cells were essentially free of lysosomal accumulation, including protein absorption droplets, despite the presence of proteinuria. In only one case, an autopsied Fabry heterozygote, were the proximal tubular cells loaded with protein absorption droplets. The arterial wall in large muscular arteries (coronary, renal and intrarenal) displayed arteriopathy with pronounced involvement of the smooth muscle cells in the media. Arteriopathy started with storage, followed by cell degeneration and breakdown, extracellular matrix deposition and, often, calcification (confined to the muscular layer). Smooth muscle cells occasionally exhibited shrinkage-type necrosis, with dispersion of the stored lipid into the dense cytoplasmic mass. Intimal and mitral valve fibroblasts exhibited variable storage, which was associated with cell loss and necrosis. Intensive storage was found in Leydig cells and in the epididymal epithelium. CONCLUSION These long-term sequelae of Gb3 storage are mostly irreversible. Some may interfere with enzyme replacement therapy. It is important, therefore, to consider starting enzyme replacement therapy as early as possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Elleder
- Institute of Inherited Metabolic Disorders, Charles University 1st Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Prague, Prague, Czech Republic.
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Abstract
The beneficial effects of statins are the result of their capacity to reduce cholesterol biosyntesis, mainly in the liver, where they are selectively distributed, as well as to the modulation of lipid metabolism, derived from their effect of inhibition upon HMG-CoA reductase. Statins have antiatherosclerotic effects, that positively correlate with the percent decrease in LDL cholesterol. In addition, they can exert antiatherosclerotic effects independently of their hypolipidemic action. Because the mevalonate metabolism generates a series of isoprenoids vital for different cellular functions, from cholesterol synthesis to the control of cell growth and differentiation, HMG-CoA reductase inhibition has beneficial pleiotropic effects. Consequently, statins reduce significantly the incidence of coronary events, both in primary and secondary prevention, being the most efficient hypolipidemic compounds that have reduced the rate of mortality in coronary patients. Independent of their hypolipidemic properties, statins interfere with events involved in bone formation and impede tumor cell growth.
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MESH Headings
- Cholesterol Esters/metabolism
- Endothelium, Vascular/cytology
- Endothelium, Vascular/drug effects
- Endothelium, Vascular/metabolism
- Humans
- Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors/adverse effects
- Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors/classification
- Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors/pharmacology
- Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors/therapeutic use
- Hypercholesterolemia/drug therapy
- Lipid Metabolism
- Liver/drug effects
- Liver/metabolism
- Models, Biological
- Molecular Structure
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/cytology
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/drug effects
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/metabolism
- Platelet Activation/drug effects
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
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Affiliation(s)
- C Stancu
- Nicolae Simionescu Institute of Cellular Biology and Pathology 8, B. P. Hasdeu Street, Bucharest 79691, Romania
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