1
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Bonichon M, Combès A, Desoubries C, Bossée A, Pichon V. Development of immunosorbents coupled on-line to immobilized pepsin reactor and micro liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry for analysis of butyrylcholinesterase in human plasma. J Chromatogr A 2017; 1526:70-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2017.10.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Revised: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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2
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Halvorsen TG, Reubsaet L. Antibody based affinity capture LC-MS/MS in quantitative determination of proteins in biological matrices. Trends Analyt Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2017.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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3
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Alvarez RH, Natal FLN, Ribela MTCP, de Almeida BE, de Oliveira JE, Bartolini P. Physical-chemical and biological characterization of different preparations of equine chorionic gonadotropin. J Vet Sci 2017; 17:459-465. [PMID: 27297410 PMCID: PMC5204023 DOI: 10.4142/jvs.2016.17.4.459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2015] [Revised: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Ovarian stimulation with commercial preparations of equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG) produces extremely variable responses in domestic animals, ranging from excessive stimulation to practically no stimulation, when applied on the basis of their declared unitage. This study was conducted to analyze four commercial preparations from different manufacturers via reversed-phase HPLC (RP-HPLC) in comparison with a reference preparation and an official International Standard from the World Health Organization. The peaks obtained by this qualitative and quantitative physical–chemical analysis were compared using an in vivo bioassay based on the ovarian weight gain of prepubertal female rats. The RP-HPLC data showed one or two peaks close to a main peak (tR = 27.9 min), which were related to the in vivo bioactivity. Commercial preparations that have this altered peak showed very little or no in vivo activity, as demonstrated by rat ovarian weight and in peripubertal gilts induced to ovulate. Overall, these findings indicate that RP-HPLC can be a rapid and reliable tool to reveal changes in the physicochemical profile of commercial eCG that is apparently related to decreased biological activity of this hormone.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Beatriz Elane de Almeida
- Biotechnology Department, IPEN-CNEN, Cidade Universitária Sao Paulo, 05508-000 São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Paolo Bartolini
- Biotechnology Department, IPEN-CNEN, Cidade Universitária Sao Paulo, 05508-000 São Paulo, Brazil
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4
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Guzman NA, Guzman DE. An emerging micro-scale immuno-analytical diagnostic tool to see the unseen. Holding promise for precision medicine and P4 medicine. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2016; 1021:14-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2015.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2015] [Revised: 11/15/2015] [Accepted: 11/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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5
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van den Broek I, Blokland M, Nessen MA, Sterk S. Current trends in mass spectrometry of peptides and proteins: Application to veterinary and sports-doping control. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2015; 34:571-594. [PMID: 24375671 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2013] [Revised: 11/12/2013] [Accepted: 11/12/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Detection of misuse of peptides and proteins as growth promoters is a major issue for sport and food regulatory agencies. The limitations of current analytical detection strategies for this class of compounds, in combination with their efficacy in growth-promoting effects, make peptide and protein drugs highly susceptible to abuse by either athletes or farmers who seek for products to illicitly enhance muscle growth. Mass spectrometry (MS) for qualitative analysis of peptides and proteins is well-established, particularly due to tremendous efforts in the proteomics community. Similarly, due to advancements in targeted proteomic strategies and the rapid growth of protein-based biopharmaceuticals, MS for quantitative analysis of peptides and proteins is becoming more widely accepted. These continuous advances in MS instrumentation and MS-based methodologies offer enormous opportunities for detection and confirmation of peptides and proteins. Therefore, MS seems to be the method of choice to improve the qualitative and quantitative analysis of peptide and proteins with growth-promoting properties. This review aims to address the opportunities of MS for peptide and protein analysis in veterinary control and sports-doping control with a particular focus on detection of illicit growth promotion. An overview of potential peptide and protein targets, including their amino acid sequence characteristics and current MS-based detection strategies is, therefore, provided. Furthermore, improvements of current and new detection strategies with state-of-the-art MS instrumentation are discussed for qualitative and quantitative approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene van den Broek
- RIKILT Wageningen UR, Institute of Food Safety, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708, WB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC), Albinusdreef 2, 2333, ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Marco Blokland
- RIKILT Wageningen UR, Institute of Food Safety, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708, WB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Merel A Nessen
- RIKILT Wageningen UR, Institute of Food Safety, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708, WB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Saskia Sterk
- RIKILT Wageningen UR, Institute of Food Safety, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708, WB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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6
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Mazzarino M, Calvaresi V, de la Torre X, Parrotta G, Sebastianelli C, Botrè F. Development and validation of a liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry procedure after solid-phase extraction for detection of 19 doping peptides in human urine. Forensic Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-015-0279-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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7
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Thevis M, Thomas A, Schänzer W. Detecting peptidic drugs, drug candidates and analogs in sports doping: current status and future directions. Expert Rev Proteomics 2014; 11:663-73. [DOI: 10.1586/14789450.2014.965159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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8
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Woldemariam GA, Butch AW. Immunoextraction-tandem mass spectrometry method for measuring intact human chorionic gonadotropin, free β-subunit, and β-subunit core fragment in urine. Clin Chem 2014; 60:1089-97. [PMID: 24899693 DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2014.222703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) stimulates testosterone production by the testicles. Because of the potential for abuse, hCG is banned (males only) in most sports and has been placed on the World Anti-Doping Agency list of prohibited substances. Intact hCG, free β-subunit (hCGβ), and β-subunit core fragment (hCGβcf) are the major variants or isoforms in urine. Immunoassays are used by antidoping laboratories to measure urinary hCG. Cross-reactivity with isoforms differs among immunoassays, resulting in widely varying results. We developed a sequential immunoextraction method with LC-MS/MS detection for quantification of intact hCG, hCGβ, and hCGβcf in urine. METHODS hCG isoforms were immunoextracted with antibody-conjugated magnetic beads and digested with trypsin, and hCGβ and hCGβcf unique peptides were quantified by LC-MS/MS with the corresponding heavy peptides as internal standard. hCG isoform concentrations were determined in urine after administration of hCG, and the intact hCG results were compared to immunoassay results. RESULTS The method was linear to 20 IU/L. Total imprecision was 6.6%-13.7% (CV), recovery ranged from 91% to 109%, and the limit of quantification was 0.2 IU/L. Intact hCG predominated in the urine after administration of 2 hCG formulations. The window of detection ranged from 6 to 9 days. Mean immunoassay results were 12.4-15.5 IU/L higher than LC-MS/MS results. CONCLUSIONS The performance characteristics of the method are acceptable for measuring hCG isoforms, and the method can quantify intact hCG and hCGβ separately. The limit of quantification will allow LC-MS/MS hCG reference intervals to be established in nondoping male athletes for improved doping control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Getachew A Woldemariam
- UCLA Olympic Analytical Laboratory, Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Geffen School of Medicine, Reagan UCLA Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Anthony W Butch
- UCLA Olympic Analytical Laboratory, Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Geffen School of Medicine, Reagan UCLA Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA.
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9
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Huang T, Zhang W, Dai X, Zhang X, Quan C, Li H, Yang Y. Precise measurement for the purity of amino acid and peptide using quantitative nuclear magnetic resonance. Talanta 2014; 125:94-101. [PMID: 24840420 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2014.02.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2013] [Revised: 02/18/2014] [Accepted: 02/24/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Precise measurement for the purity of organic compounds will fundamentally improve the capabilities and measurement services of the organic chemical analysis. Quantitative nuclear magnetic resonance (qNMR) is an important method to assess the purity of organic compounds. We presented a precise measurement method for the purity of small molecule with identification of impurities. In addition, the qNMR was rarely applied to purity of large compounds such as peptide, for which qNMR peaks are too crowded. Other than general idea of qNMR, we removed unwanted exchangeable peaks by proton exchange, as a new approach for qNMR, to make the quantitative protons of peptide isolated, which can ensure precise measurement. Moreover, a suitable internal standard, acesulfame potassium, was applied. The analytes were valine and peptide T5, due to their importance for protein analysis. For valine, the intraday CV was 0.052%, and the interday CV during 8 months was 0.071%. For peptide T5, simpler operation, shorter analytical time (1h vs. 3 days) and smaller CV (0.36% vs. 0.93%) were achieved by qNMR, compared with a traditional method (amino acid based isotope labeled mass spectrometry) via a hydrolysis reaction. This method has greatly increased the quantitative precision of qNMR for small compounds, and extended application scope of qNMR from small compounds to peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Huang
- Division of Chemical Metrology and Analytical Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Division of Chemical Metrology and Analytical Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Xinhua Dai
- Division of Chemical Metrology and Analytical Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing 100013, China.
| | - Xiaoguang Zhang
- College of Science, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Can Quan
- Division of Chemical Metrology and Analytical Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Hongmei Li
- Division of Chemical Metrology and Analytical Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Yi Yang
- College of Science, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
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10
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Guha N, Cowan DA, Sönksen PH, Holt RIG. Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) misuse in athletes and potential methods for detection. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:9669-83. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7229-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2013] [Revised: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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11
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Targeting prohibited substances in doping control blood samples by means of chromatographic–mass spectrometric methods. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:9655-67. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7224-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2013] [Revised: 06/26/2013] [Accepted: 07/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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12
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Torsetnes SB, Løvbak SG, Claus C, Lund H, Nordlund MS, Paus E, Halvorsen TG, Reubsaet L. Immunocapture and LC–MS/MS for selective quantification and differentiation of the isozymes of the biomarker neuron-specific enolase in serum. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2013; 929:125-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2013.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2013] [Revised: 04/06/2013] [Accepted: 04/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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13
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Sports drug testing using immuno-MS: clinical study comprising administration of human chorionic gonadotropin to males. Anal Bioanal Chem 2012. [PMID: 23203507 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-012-6566-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The applicability of a mass spectrometry (MS)-based method for determination of various forms of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in doping analysis was demonstrated. A clinical study involving the hCG-containing pharmaceuticals Pregnyl and Ovitrelle was carried out, comprising a single injection of one pharmaceutical per participant to a total of 24 healthy male voluntaries. Hereafter, serum and urine samples were collected over a period of 14 days. The analysis of the samples using immuno-MS demonstrated elimination profiles of intact hCG for both pharmaceuticals, with last day of detection following administration at day 7 in serum, and at day 10 in urine, at limit of detections as defined by the World Anti-Doping Agency. Furthermore, the method allowed detection and differentiation of the various forms of hCG known to be present in serum and urine as a function of metabolism. For both pharmaceuticals, only the intact hCG was detected in serum, whereas in urine the injection of Pregnyl as hCG source (containing urinary hCG, i.e., most hCG variants) was shown to generate a more complex hCG variant pattern compared to Ovitrelle (contains only intact hCG). By detecting hCG using this MS-based approach in doping analysis, strong analytical evidence is provided minimizing the risk of false-positive and false-negative results.
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14
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Lund H, Løvsletten K, Paus E, Halvorsen TG, Reubsaet L. Immuno–MS Based Targeted Proteomics: Highly Specific, Sensitive, and Reproducible Human Chorionic Gonadotropin Determination for Clinical Diagnostics and Doping Analysis. Anal Chem 2012; 84:7926-32. [DOI: 10.1021/ac301418f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hanne Lund
- Department of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Karoline Løvsletten
- Department of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Elisabeth Paus
- Central
Laboratory, Radiumhospitalet,
Rikshospitalet, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Léon Reubsaet
- Department of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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15
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Kang MJ, Lee HI, Shin SM, Yoo HH, Kwon OS, Jin CB, Chung BC. Performance Characteristic of the β-Human Chorionic Gonadotropin Assay on the Access 2 for Its Use in Doping Control. B KOREAN CHEM SOC 2010. [DOI: 10.5012/bkcs.2010.31.10.2889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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16
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17
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Thevis M, Bredehöft M, Kohler M, Schänzer W. Mass spectrometry-based analysis of IGF-1 and hGH. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2010:201-207. [PMID: 20020366 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-79088-4_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Mass spectrometric approaches have been used to determine various peptide hormones in sports drug testing. While insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and its synthetic analogs are qualitatively and/or quantitatively measured by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry after immunoaffinity purification, methods of uncovering doping rule violations with illegal applications of human growth hormone (hGH) have not yet been established using mass spectrometry-based assays. However, substantial information on the heterogeneity of hGH, splice variants and post-translational modifications with respective locations as elucidated by mass spectrometry are of utmost importance for improving currently employed immunological procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Thevis
- Center for Preventive Doping Research - Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Am Sportpark Müngersdorf 6, 50933, Cologne, Germany.
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18
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Tsikas D. Quantitative analysis of biomarkers, drugs and toxins in biological samples by immunoaffinity chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry or tandem mass spectrometry: A focused review of recent applications. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2009; 878:133-48. [PMID: 19969510 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2009.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2009] [Revised: 10/30/2009] [Accepted: 11/05/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Immunoaffinity chromatography (IAC), mass spectrometry and especially tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) represent the most efficient and reliable analytical techniques for specific isolation, unequivocal identification and accurate quantification of numerous natural and synthetic substances in biological samples. This review article focuses on the combined use of these outstanding methodologies in basic and clinical research and in life sciences for the quantitative analysis of low- and high-molecular mass biomarkers, drugs and toxins in urine, plasma or serum samples, in tissue and other biologicals systems published in the last decade. The analytes discussed in some detail include the biomarkers of oxidative stress 15(S)-8-iso-prostaglandin F(2alpha) {15(S)-8-iso-PGF(2alpha)} and 3-nitrotyrosine, the major urinary metabolite of the lipid mediators cysteinyl leukotrienes, i.e., the leukotriene E(4) (LTE(4)), melatonin, and the major collagen type II neoepitope peptide in human urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrios Tsikas
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hannover Medical School, Germany.
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19
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Bane TK, Timmons MS, Kauffman SJ, Catlin DH. Enrichment and immunoprecipitation of 22 kDa human growth hormone spiked into human urine. Drug Test Anal 2009; 1:441-6. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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20
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Handelsman DJ, Goebel C, Idan A, Jimenez M, Trout G, Kazlauskas R. Effects of recombinant human LH and hCG on serum and urine LH and androgens in men. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2009; 71:417-28. [PMID: 19170708 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2265.2008.03516.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT The administration of gonadotrophins is prohibited in sport but the effect in men of recently available recombinant hCG and LH on serum and urine concentrations of gonadotrophins and androgens has not been systematically evaluated in the antidoping context. OBJECTIVE To determine the time-course of recombinant LH (rhLH) and hCG (rhCG) on blood and urine hormone profiles in men to develop effective tests to detect rhLH and rhCG doping. DESIGN Two randomized controlled studies with a 2 x 2 factorial design. SETTING Academic research centre. PARTICIPANTS Healthy male volunteers aged 18-45 years. INTERVENTIONS In the rhLH study, men were randomized into (i) either of two single doses of rhLH (75 IU or 225 IU), and (ii) suppression of endogenous LH and testosterone by nandrolone or no suppression. In the rhCG study, men were randomized into (i) either of two single doses of rhCG (250 or 750 microg), and (ii) suppression of endogenous LH and testosterone by nandrolone decanoate (ND) or no suppression. ND suppression comprised a single dose of 200 mg ND 3 days prior to, and in the rhCG study an additional dose 1 day after gonadotrophin injection. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Serum and urine hCG, LH, T, T : LH ratio, urine epitestosterone (E) and urine T : E ratio. RESULTS Neither rhLH dose produced a significant increase in serum or urine LH or T or in the T : E or T : LH ratios regardless of ND-induced suppression of endogenous LH and T. Nor did an even higher dose (750 IU) in three healthy men with unsuppressed gonadal axis. These findings were confirmed with two different commercial LH immunoassays together with adjustment for any influence of urine sediment and dilution. Both rhCG doses produced a steep, dose-proportional increase in serum and urine hCG with increases in serum and urine T and suppression of serum and urine LH, regardless of hCG dose. Serum but not urine T was lowered by ND suppression. The T : LH ratio showed a progressive increase unrelated to rhCG dose or ND suppression, whereas both rhCG and ND suppression minimally increased T : E ratio. CONCLUSIONS Both rhCG doses produce a striking increase in serum hCG and T with suppression of serum LH but, at single doses up to 750 IU, rhLH has no influence on serum or urine LH or T. Effective rhLH doping, which relies on a sustained increases in endogenous T, would require much higher and more frequent daily rhLH doses. Use of LH immunoassays optimized for serum to detect rhLH doping by urine LH measurement requires more standardization and validation and, at present, is unreliable. The T : LH ratio is, however, a useful screening test for hCG doping although its utility requires further evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Handelsman
- Andrology Department, Concord Hospital, ANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney NSW, Australia.
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21
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Bowers LD. The analytical chemistry of drug monitoring in athletes. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (PALO ALTO, CALIF.) 2009; 2:485-507. [PMID: 20636072 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anchem-060908-155159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The detection and deterrence of the abuse of performance-enhancing drugs in sport are important to maintaining a level playing field among athletes and to decreasing the risk to athletes' health. The World Anti-Doping Program consists of six documents, three of which play a role in analytical development: The World Anti-Doping Code, The List of Prohibited Substances and Methods, and The International Standard for Laboratories. Among the classes of prohibited substances, three have given rise to the most recent analytical developments in the field: anabolic agents; peptide and protein hormones; and methods to increase oxygen delivery to the tissues, including recombinant erythropoietin. Methods for anabolic agents, including designer steroids, have been enhanced through the use of liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry and gas chromatography/combustion/isotope-ratio mass spectrometry. Protein and peptide identification and quantification have benefited from advances in liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. Incorporation of techniques such as flow cytometry and isoelectric focusing have supported the detection of blood doping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larry D Bowers
- United States Anti-Doping Agency, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80906, USA.
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22
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Graham MR, Davies B, Grace FM, Kicman A, Baker JS. Anabolic steroid use: patterns of use and detection of doping. Sports Med 2008; 38:505-25. [PMID: 18489196 DOI: 10.2165/00007256-200838060-00005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) were the first identified doping agents that have ergogenic effects and are being used to increase muscle mass and strength in adult males. Consequently, athletes are still using them to increase physical performance and bodybuilders are using them to improve size and cosmetic appearance. The prevalence of AAS use has risen dramatically over the last two decades and filtered into all aspects of society. Support for AAS users has increased, but not by the medical profession, who will not accept that AAS use dependency is a psychiatric condition. The adverse effects and potential dangers of AAS use have been well documented. AAS are used in sport by individuals who have acquired knowledge of the half-lives of specific drugs and the dosages and cycles required to avoid detection. Conversely, they are used by bodybuilders in extreme dosages with the intention of gaining muscle mass and size, with little or no regard for the consequences. Polypharmacy by self-prescription is prevalent in this sector. Most recently, AAS use has filtered through to 'recreational street drug' users and is the largest growth of drugs in this subdivision. They are taken to counteract the anorexic and cachectic effects of the illegal psychotropic street drugs. Screening procedures for AAS in World Anti-Doping Agency accredited laboratories are comprehensive and sensitive and are based mainly on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, although liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry is becoming increasingly more valuable. The use of carbon isotope mass spectrometry is also of increasing importance in the detection of natural androgen administration, particularly to detect testosterone administration. There is a degree of contentiousness in the scenario of AAS drug use, both within and outside sport. AAS and associated doping agents are not illegal per se. Possession is not an offence, despite contravening sporting regulations and moral codes. Until AAS are classified in the same capacity as street drugs in the UK, where possession becomes a criminal offence, they will continue to attract those who want to win at any cost. The knowledge acquired by such work can only assist in the education of individuals who use such doping agents, with a view to minimizing health risks and hopefully once again create a level playing field in sport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Graham
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, School of Applied Science, University of Glamorgan, Pontypridd, UK
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23
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Barroso O, Mazzoni I, Rabin O. Hormone abuse in sports: the antidoping perspective. Asian J Androl 2008; 10:391-402. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-7262.2008.00402.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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24
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Gonadotropins in doping: pharmacological basis and detection of illicit use. Br J Pharmacol 2008; 154:569-83. [PMID: 18414398 DOI: 10.1038/bjp.2008.102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Parenteral administration of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) or luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the production of testosterone in males and these gonadotropins can therefore be used by athletes to enhance muscle strength. However, they are more expensive and less efficient than testosterone and anabolic steroids. Therefore their main use is probably to stimulate gonadal testosterone production during and after self-administration of testosterone or anabolic steroids. A positive effect of hCG on muscle strength has not been demonstrated in women and elevated concentrations of hCG in females are often caused by pregnancy. The use of gonadotropins is therefore prohibited only in males but not in females. HCG occurs at low but measurable concentrations in plasma and urine of healthy males and can be measured by sensitive methods. However, the characteristics of the method to be used for doping control have not been defined. Virtually all commercially available hCG assays have been designed for determination of hCG in serum rather than urine, which is used for doping control. Methods based on mass spectrometric detection of fragments derived from hCG extracted from urine by immunoadsorption have been developed but their suitability for doping control remains to be determined. The concentrations of LH in serum and urine are variable and more then 10-fold higher than those hCG. It is therefore difficult to detect illicit use of LH. The characteristics and reference values for hCG and LH assays used in doping control and the cutoff values need to be defined.
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Abstract
The analysis of sports samples for prohibited substances began in the 1960s and has developed since then using modern technologies close to the latest scientific discoveries. In this chapter the latest techniques and applications are described as well as the role of the World Anti-Doping Agency as the controlling body for the implementation of these tests. For small molecules, apart from the routine use of GC-MS, the newer techniques include the use of isotope ratio MS to detect testosterone and nandrolone administration and LC-MS/MS (liquid chromatography-tandem MS) to detect diuretics. For large molecules, several applications of LC-MS/MS are described as well as immunoprocedures for erythropoietin and human growth hormone. Finally, the latest method to detect homologous blood transfusion is briefly described.
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26
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Thevis M, Schänzer W. Current role of LC–MS(/MS) in doping control. Anal Bioanal Chem 2007; 388:1351-8. [PMID: 17265083 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-007-1131-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2006] [Revised: 01/09/2007] [Accepted: 01/12/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Liquid chromatography-(tandem) mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) has revolutionized the detection assays used in doping control analysis over the last decade. New methods have enabled the determination of drugs that were formerly difficult to detect or undetectable at preceding sample concentrations, and complex and/or time-consuming procedures based on alternative chromatographic-mass spectrometric or immunochemical principles have been replaced by faster, more comprehensive and robust assays. A critical overview of the contributions of LC-MS(/MS) to sports drug testing is provided, including recent developments regarding low and high molecular weight drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Thevis
- Center for Preventive Doping Research - Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Carl-Diem-Weg 6, 50933 Cologne, Germany.
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27
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Kicman AT, Parkin MC, Iles RK. An introduction to mass spectrometry based proteomics-detection and characterization of gonadotropins and related molecules. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2007; 260-262:212-27. [PMID: 17097803 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2006.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2005] [Accepted: 02/05/2006] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This review introduces fundamental aspects of mass spectrometry (MS) based proteomics and illustrates how MS is an effective tool for the analysis of glycoprotein hormones. Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) and electrospray ionization (ESI) MS are complementary approaches that have been applied for the analysis of gonadotropins, e.g. to characterize differences in the oligosaccharide distribution of commercial human chorionic gonadotropin preparations, for isolated nicked beta-subunit, and identification of a metabolite of placental transforming growth factor in pharmaceutical hCG preparations. Immunoaffinity trapping and concentration of digested sample extract prior to MS analysis confers analytical sensitivity akin to immunoassay. A desirable objective would be to develop for clinical purposes a rapid procedure for MS detection and characterization of gonadotropins. Refinement of on-target immobilization and digestion for subsequent ionization by MALDI may eventually help to provide this capability. The advent of hybrid mass spectrometers will further advance the characterization of these complex molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew T Kicman
- Department of Forensic Science & Drug Monitoring (Drug Control Centre), Kings College London, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK.
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28
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Dubois M, Becher F, Herbet A, Ezan E. Immuno-mass spectrometry assay of EPI-HNE4, a recombinant protein inhibitor of human elastase. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2007; 21:352-8. [PMID: 17200977 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.2844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
In order to increase the sensitivity of liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) assays of recombinant proteins for pharmacokinetics studies, we have developed an immuno-mass spectrometry assay for EPI-hNE4, a 6237 Da protein currently developed for respiratory distress syndromes. After immunocapture of the analyte in human plasma with magnetic beads coated with anti-EPI-hNE4 antibodies, the intact protein was eluted and separated in reversed-phase LC and then analysed by tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) in selected reaction monitoring (SRM) mode. The problem of analytical interference due to endogenous binding antibodies was addressed by successive steps of acidification and neutralisation before immunocapture. Furthermore, potential variations in the recovery of analyte during sample extraction were compensated for by addition of an internal standard recognised by the antibodies. The precision of the assay remained therefore below 15%. A significant increase in assay sensitivity was achieved since the extraction step allowed sample concentration and removal of matrix components interfering with the electrospray ionisation process. Using 0.4 mL of plasma, a limit of quantification at 0.5 ng/mL (80 pM) was reached, which represents a 10-fold improvement in sensitivity over our previous work using sample precipitation. This technique was able to monitor EPI-hNE4 kinetics in the plasma of human subjects for 36 h after an intravenous administration of 0.125 mg/kg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathieu Dubois
- CEA, Service de Pharmacologie et d'Immunologie, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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29
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Thevis M, Loo JA, Loo RRO, Schänzer W. Recommended criteria for the mass spectrometric identification of target peptides and proteins (<8 kDa) in sports drug testing. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2007; 21:297-304. [PMID: 17200979 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.2848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Mass spectrometry has become an invaluable tool for the identification of prohibited peptide hormones and proteins in doping control analysis. Regulatory authorities have established criteria for identifying banned drugs in doping control specimens, but these criteria do not address the specific issues for high molecular weight protein drugs such as molecular weight determination of multiply charged molecules, analysis of chemically or enzymatically derived degradation products, identification of amino acid sequence tags, etc. Technical considerations such as sample preparation methods (e.g. immunoaffinity purification), resulting analytes (e.g. intact compounds vs. chemically or enzymatically derived peptides), ionization modes, analyzer resolution, and the information provided by respective techniques are discussed in light of sports drug testing requirements using typical application examples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Thevis
- Institute of Biochemistry-Center for Preventive Doping Research, German Sport University Cologne, Carl-Diem Weg 6, 50933 Cologne, Germany.
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30
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Azzazy HME, Mansour MMH. Rogue athletes and recombinant DNA technology: challenges for doping control. Analyst 2007; 132:951-7. [PMID: 17893796 DOI: 10.1039/b707495f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The quest for athletic excellence holds no limit for some athletes, and the advances in recombinant DNA technology have handed these athletes the ultimate doping weapons: recombinant proteins and gene doping. Some detection methods are now available for several recombinant proteins that are commercially available as pharmaceuticals and being abused by dopers. However, researchers are struggling to come up with efficient detection methods in preparation for the imminent threat of gene doping, expected in the 2008 Olympics. This Forum article presents the main detection strategies for recombinant proteins and the forthcoming detection strategies for gene doping as well as the prime analytical challenges facing them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hassan M E Azzazy
- Department of Chemistry and Yousef Jameel Science & Technology Research Center, Sci Bldg # 310, The American University in Cairo, 113 Kasr El-Aini Street, Cairo 11511, Egypt.
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31
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Gam LH, Latiff A. SDS-PAGE electrophoretic property of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and its beta-subunit. Int J Biol Sci 2005; 1:103-9. [PMID: 16094462 PMCID: PMC1182232 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.1.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2005] [Accepted: 04/27/2005] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The microheterogeneity property of hCG with regards to its sialic acid contents resulted in variable mobility of the glycoprotein in SDS-PAGE. The intact hCG molecule is composed of two dissimilar subunits, namely α- and β-subunits. The identification of hCG bands in SDS-PAGE was accomplished by the immunoblotting experiment, whereby the antibody directed toward the specific region of β-subunit of hCG was used. The data shows that the different mobility of intact hCG was attributed to the different degree of desialylation of the glycoprotein. Nevertheless, unlike the intact hCG, the mobility of its β-subunit was not affected by its variety sialic acid content. This characteristic of β-hCG is beneficial when semi-quantification of total hCG is required. Quantification of hCG using the HPLC-reversed phase C18 analytical column is not possible as the glycoprotein was eluted in multiple fractions at different retention times. The identification of denatured hCG (HPLC eluted fractions) was carried out by immunoblotting experiment whilst immunoassay technique failed to detect its presence in any fraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lay-Harn Gam
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University Sciences of Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia.
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