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Sara GP, Ryesa M, Muzayyana A, Myles SF, Leah L, Tonja N, Kyle SB, Siega-Riz AM, Shearrer EG. Association of stress on eating competence in mothers during pregnancy and six months postpartum. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2023; 23:690. [PMID: 37741977 PMCID: PMC10517560 DOI: 10.1186/s12884-023-06005-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 09/17/2023] [Indexed: 09/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Perceived stress is related to poor diet quality and unhealthy dietary patterns in women of reproductive age. Eating competence represents a variety of contextual skills reflecting a comfortable and flexible approach to eating and is associated with diet quality and health related behavior. In non-pregnant samples, perceived stress is negatively associated with eating competence. Given that pregnancy and the postpartum period can be periods of high stress, we hypothesized that higher stress in pregnancy would result in lower pregnancy eating competence. METHODS Women (n = 296, mean BMIbaseline pregnancy = 26.3 ± SD 6.0) in the Pregnancy Eating Attributes Study (PEAS) were recruited from the Chapel Hill, North Carolina area. Perceived stress was assessed using the Perceived Stress Scale and eating competence using the ecSatter Inventory at their first trimester and 6-month postpartum visits. We used a mixed effect model to assess the effect of stress by time on eating competence, controlling for baseline pregnancy BMI, race and ethnicity, poverty to income ratio, and WIC status. RESULTS Perceived stress was negatively associated with eating competence (b= -0.23, SE = 0.06, p < 0.001). The interaction of stress by time was negatively associated with eating competence (b = -0.15, SE = 0.08, p = 0.03), indicating that the association of stress with eating competence was stronger in postpartum than in pregnancy. CONCLUSIONS Perceived stress may adversely impact eating competence during both pregnancy and postpartum. Future studies intervening upon stress or eating competence during pregnancy and postpartum may inform potential causal relations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghasem Pour Sara
- Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, University of Wyoming, Laramie, USA
| | - Mansoor Ryesa
- School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, USA
| | | | - S Faith Myles
- Department of Counseling, School, and Educational Psychology, Graduate School of Education, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, USA
| | - Lipsky Leah
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, USA
| | - Nansel Tonja
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, USA
| | - S Burger Kyle
- Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, USA
| | - Anna Maria Siega-Riz
- Departments of Nutrition and Biostatistics & Epidemiology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, USA
| | - E Grace Shearrer
- Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, University of Wyoming, Laramie, USA.
- School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, USA.
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Fang L, Hsiao LP, Fang SH, Chen BC. Workplace bullying, personality traits and health among hospital nurses: The mediating effect of social support. J Clin Nurs 2021; 30:3590-3600. [PMID: 34114285 DOI: 10.1111/jocn.15881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES This study aimed to explore the status of nursing staff's workplace bullying, personality traits, social support and mental health, to find out the predictors of nursing staff's health, and to explore whether social support is a mediator to regulate the impact of workplace bullying on mental health. BACKGROUND Bullying could cause physical and psychological problems, and nursing workplace bullying causes not only health problems of nursing staff but also patient safety problems. "Workplace bullying" is a worthy topic to pay attention to. Only limited studies could be discovered about the mediating effects between workplace bullying and health. METHODS Cross-sectional and correlation designs were used. The STROBE was used as a checklist for this study. RESULTS The results showed that the frequency of poor sleep quality ≥3 days in recent 2 weeks (p < .001), external control personality traits (p = .016), workplace bullying (p < .001) and less social support (p = .001) were the main predictors of the health problems among nurses, and social support was the mediator between workplace bullying and health problems. CONCLUSION It is recommended that hospital managers should apply regular sleep-wake schedule by designing a biological clock-compliant shift in order to promote good sleep hygiene of the nurses. Providing educational programmes and building up policies to decrease workplace bullying and increase social supports are suggested. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE Hospital managers should provide education and training related to the prevention of bullying and establish communication and consultation channels for the bullied. Nursing managers should also educate nurses to establish effective social networks with family, friends and colleagues to prevent health problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Fang
- Department of Nursing, Fooyin University, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Li-Ping Hsiao
- Department of Nursing, Pingtung Christian Hospital, Pingtung City, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Shu-Hui Fang
- Department of Foreign Languages, Fooyin University, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Bao-Chen Chen
- Department of Nursing, Pingtung Christian Hospital, Pingtung City, Taiwan, R.O.C
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Fang L, Fang CL, Fang SH. A study of regular exercise, social support and depression in the community-dwelling older people. Int J Nurs Pract 2021; 28:e12954. [PMID: 34028918 DOI: 10.1111/ijn.12954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2020] [Revised: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS This study aims to explore the relationship between regular exercise, social support and depression in community-dwelling older people and find out the predictors of depression. METHODS Cross-sectional and correlation designs were used. The participants were recruited from August to October in 2020. The STROBE was used as a checklist for this study. RESULTS The study found that female gender, older age, poor sleep quality, irregular exercise and low social support were the main predictors of depression among the community-dwelling older people. CONCLUSION It is suggested that healthcare professionals motivate the older people to exercise regularly in the community using individualized exercise routines designed according to their physical conditions such as different types, frequencies and intensity of exercise. Providing social support to each other at the community care site should be encouraged, and regular assessment of the mental health of community-dwelling older people should be done. It is also recommended to organize a timely depression-related education course for older people in the community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Fang
- Department of Nursing, Fooyin University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Ching-Lin Fang
- Department of Rehabilitation, Erlin Christian Hospital, Erlin Township, Taiwan, R.O.C.,Department of Physical Therapy, Shu-Zen Junior College of Medicine and Management, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, R.O.C.,Department of Recreation and Holistic Wellness, MingDao University, Pitou Township, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Shu-Hui Fang
- Department of Foreign Languages, Fooyin University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, R.O.C
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Fang L, Fang CL, Fang SH. Student nurses' bullying, social support and their health status during clinical practicum programmes. Int J Nurs Pract 2020; 26:e12869. [PMID: 32715597 DOI: 10.1111/ijn.12869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2019] [Revised: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
AIMS This study was to explore the student nurses' bullying, social support and their health status during clinical practicum programmes and the predictors of health status among student nurses during clinical practicum programmes. METHODS A cross-sectional design with structured questionnaires was used, recruiting 200 student nurses in a 5-year junior college programme in south Taiwan. RESULTS The significant predictors of nursing students' health status during clinical practicum programmes were 'whether experiencing bullying situations during clinical practicum' and 'low social support'. CONCLUSION In order to prevent bullying during clinical practicum, encouraging nursing students to report all the clinical practicum bullying incidents, providing counselling to nursing students and arranging clinical practicum bullying prevention courses to students were important. Moreover, providing instructors and nursing staff with teaching, communication and feedback skills might help nursing students prevent bullying incidents during clinical practicum programmes. A longitudinal study design was suggested for the future study in order to assess the cause-effect relationship of the bullying and social support on health among students during clinical practicum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Fang
- Department of Nursing, Fooyin University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan (ROC)
| | - Ching-Lin Fang
- Department of Rehabilitation, Erlin Christian Hospital, Erlin Township, Changhua County, Taiwan (ROC).,Department of Rehabilitation Science, Jen-Teh Junior College of Medicine, Nursing and Management, Hou-Loung Town, Miaoli County, Taiwan.,Department of Recreation and Holistic Wellness, MingDao University, Pitou Township, Changhua County, Taiwan.,Department of Physical Therapy, Shu-Zen Junior College of Medicine and Management, Luzhu Dist., Kaohsiung City, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Hui Fang
- Department of Foreign Languages, Fooyin University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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Moirasgenti M, Doulougeri K, Panagopoulou E, Theodoridis T. Psychological stress reduces the immunological benefits of breast milk. Stress Health 2019; 35:681-685. [PMID: 31691465 DOI: 10.1002/smi.2903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Our study aimed to assess the impact of maternal psychological stress on the immunological components of breast milk. Eighty-nine women participated in the study. We assessed general stress, postpartum-specific stress, negative affectivity, salivary cortisol of mother, and secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) levels of breast milk 4-6 weeks after delivery. Controlling for the effects of women's age, weight, number, and duration of feedings, postpartum-specific stress was related to reduced sIgA concentration (R2 = .206, beta = -.275, p = .020). This study suggests that the established link between psychological stress and immunity may also extend to the immunity of the newborn by reducing the immunological benefits of breast milk. It also suggests that breastfeeding might be a potential mechanism of the relationship between maternal stress and the health of the offspring. Findings highlight the need for interventions addressing women during the postpartum period, in order to ensure the mother's well-being and the infant's optimal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Moirasgenti
- Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Karolina Doulougeri
- Department of Education and Social Policy, University of Macedonia, Thessaloniki, Greece
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Zeegers MA, Potharst ES, Veringa-Skiba IK, Aktar E, Goris M, Bögels SM, Colonnesi C. Evaluating Mindful With Your Baby/Toddler: Observational Changes in Maternal Sensitivity, Acceptance, Mind-Mindedness, and Dyadic Synchrony. Front Psychol 2019; 10:753. [PMID: 31068848 PMCID: PMC6491830 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies on the effectiveness of mindful parenting interventions predominantly focused on self-report measures of parenting, whereas observational assessments of change are lacking. The present study examined whether the Mindful with your baby/toddler training leads to observed changes in maternal behavior and mother-child interaction quality. Mindful with your baby/toddler is a 8- or 9-week mindful parenting training for clinically referred mothers of young children (aged 0-48 months), who experience parental stress, mother-child interaction problems, and/or whose children experience regulation problems. The study involved a quasi-experimental non-random design including a sample of 50 mothers who were diagnosed with a mood disorder (n = 21, 42%), an anxiety disorder (n = 7, 14%), post-traumatic stress disorder (n = 6, 12%), or other disorder (n = 7, 14%). Mothers completed a parental stress questionnaire and participated in home observations with their babies (n = 36) or toddlers (n = 14) during a waitlist, pretest, and posttest assessment. Maternal sensitivity, acceptance, and mind-mindedness were coded from free-play interactions and dyadic synchrony was coded from face-to-face interactions. Sensitivity and acceptance were coded with the Ainsworth's maternal sensitivity scales. Mind-mindedness was assessed by calculating frequency and proportions of appropriate and nonattuned mind-related comments. Dyadic synchrony was operationalized by co-occurrences of gazes and positive facial expressions and maternal and child responsiveness in vocal interaction within the dyad. Coders were blind to the measurement moment. From waitlist to pretest, no significant improvements were observed. At posttest, mothers reported less parenting stress, and were observed to show more accepting behavior and make less nonattuned comments than at pretest, and children showed higher levels of responsiveness. The outcomes suggest that the Mindful with your baby/toddler training affects not only maternal stress, but also maternal behavior, particularly (over)reactive parenting behaviors, which resulted in more acceptance, better attunement to child's mental world, and more "space" for children to respond to their mothers during interactions. Mindful with your baby/toddler may be a suitable intervention for mothers of young children with (a combination of) maternal psychopathology, parental stress, and problems in the parent-child interaction and child regulation problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moniek A.J. Zeegers
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Eva S. Potharst
- UvA Minds, Academic Outpatient (Child and Adolescent) Treatment Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Irena K. Veringa-Skiba
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Evin Aktar
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Melissa Goris
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Susan M. Bögels
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Department of Developmental Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Cristina Colonnesi
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Fang L, Hsiao LP, Fang SH, Chen BC. The associations with work stress, social support and overweight/obesity among hospital nurses: A cross-sectional study. Contemp Nurse 2018; 54:182-194. [DOI: 10.1080/10376178.2018.1476166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Li Fang
- Department of Nursing, Fooyin University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Li-Ping Hsiao
- Department of Nursing, Pingtung Christian Hospital, Pingtung, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Hui Fang
- Department of Foreign Languages, Fooyin University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Bao-Chen Chen
- Department of Nursing, Pingtung Christian Hospital, Pingtung, Taiwan
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Wu WR, Hung CH. First-Time Mothers Psychiatric Health Status During the Transition to Motherhood. Community Ment Health J 2016; 52:937-943. [PMID: 25986393 DOI: 10.1007/s10597-015-9892-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2015] [Accepted: 05/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The study was conducted to examine the changes of first-time mothers' psychiatric health status, social support, marital intimacy, postpartum stress, and maternal attachment during the transition to motherhood. A repeated measures study was conducted at the 36th week pregnancy, the first week postpartum, and the fourth week postpartum with 217 primiparous women. The results showed that the proportion of women with minor psychiatric morbidity declined over time from late pregnancy to early postpartum. The levels of marital intimacy and social support was the highest at the fourth week and the first week postpartum, respectively. Maternal attachment increased and postpartum stress decreased from the first week to fourth week postpartum. Women with minor psychiatric morbidity reported significantly higher postpartum stress than women without minor psychiatric morbidity. Identifying women with psychiatric morbidity in advance, and providing social support during late pregnancy would be effective strategies to enhance first-time mothers' adjustment to the transition of motherhood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan-Ru Wu
- Department of Medical Affairs, Landseed Hospital, Taoyuan City, Taiwan.,School of Nursing, Kaohsiung Medical University, No. 100, Shih-Chuan 1st Rd., Kaohsiung City, 80708, Taiwan
| | - Chich-Hsiu Hung
- School of Nursing, Kaohsiung Medical University, No. 100, Shih-Chuan 1st Rd., Kaohsiung City, 80708, Taiwan.
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Wu CY, Hung CH, Chang YJ. Predictors of Health Status in Mothers of Premature Infants with Implications for Clinical Practice and Future Research. Worldviews Evid Based Nurs 2015. [PMID: 26220369 DOI: 10.1111/wvn.12101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Postpartum health research has focused primarily on full-term mothers. AIMS To explore postpartum stress, depression, social support, health status, and predictors of health status in mothers of premature infants. METHODS This study employed a cross-sectional design. With convenience sampling, a total of 203 mothers of premature infants were recruited from two medical centers and four community teaching hospitals in southern Taiwan. The Hung Postpartum Stress Scale, Social Support Scale, Beck Depression Inventory, and Chinese Health Questionnaire were used to assess the mothers' psychosocial features during the first 6 weeks postpartum. RESULTS Mothers' health status differed significantly according to levels of postpartum stress and depression. The important health status predictors were age, education, postpartum stress, and depression level. DISCUSSION The concerns and needs of mothers of premature infants differed from those of full-term mothers during the first 6 weeks postpartum; premature infants' health status was found to be a major perceived stressor for their mothers. LINKING EVIDENCE TO ACTION In the process of caring for premature infants' mothers, healthcare providers should provide individualized care to meet their needs, thus facilitating the reduction of postpartum stress and depression levels. During premature infants' hospitalizations, healthcare providers should hold regular faculty meetings to provide postpartum women with relevant information about their infants' health and how to best care for them. Future studies should explore postpartum stress, social support, depression, and health status each postpartum week, which could serve as a guide for nursing interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Yao Wu
- Jian Ping Internal/Pediatric Clinic, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Chich-Hsiu Hung
- School of Nursing, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Ying-Ju Chang
- School of Nursing, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
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10
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Lee LC, Hung CH. Predictors of post-partum stress in Vietnamese immigrant women in Taiwan. Jpn J Nurs Sci 2015; 13:38-45. [DOI: 10.1111/jjns.12084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 03/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Li-Chun Lee
- School of Nursing; Kaohsiung Medical University; Kaohsiung Taiwan
- Department of Nursing; I-Shou University; Kaohsiung Taiwan
| | - Chich-Hsiu Hung
- School of Nursing; Kaohsiung Medical University; Kaohsiung Taiwan
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11
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Fang L, Hung CH. Predictors of Married Female Nurses' Health. Workplace Health Saf 2014; 62:447-55. [DOI: 10.3928/21650799-20140804-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Excessive workload from employment and household duties may negatively affect married female nurses' health. This study explored job stress, family stress, social support, and health status among married female nurses to identify predictors of nurses' health status. Using a cross-sectional design, 233 married female nurses were recruited from two regional teaching hospitals. The results showed that working hours per week, job stress, and overcommitment to their jobs were significant determinants of health status. Based on study findings, nursing supervisors should avoid scheduling nurses to work more than 48 hours per week. Job stress adjustment courses could enable nurses to relax after work, avoiding overcommitment.
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Hung CH, Stocker J, Hsu HT. Comparing Taiwanese women's biopsychosocial features by location of postpartum recovery. Appl Nurs Res 2013; 27:121-6. [PMID: 24360779 DOI: 10.1016/j.apnr.2013.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2012] [Revised: 11/04/2013] [Accepted: 11/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In Taiwan, a culturally sanctioned ritual of maternal rest and recuperation has been traditionally practiced patrilocally during the first postpartum month. However, in recent years, the places where women may observe the ritual have become more diverse. AIM Our goal was to compare women's psychosocial features based on where they stayed during their postpartum recovery. METHODS Using proportional stratified quota sampling of 18 hospitals and clinics in Taiwan by birth rate, we recruited 784 postpartum women. RESULTS Women stayed in their own home (17.1%), with their parents-in-law (33.3%), with their parents (36.0%), or in a postpartum nursing center (13.6%). Women who stayed in their own residence or who stayed in their parents' residence perceived greater social support than women who stayed with their parents-in-law. CONCLUSIONS Further research should compare women's adjustment to motherhood and their competence in childcare based on where they stay during postpartum recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joel Stocker
- School of Nursing, Kaohsiung Medical University.
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION With approximately 4 million births each year in the United States, an estimated 760,000 women annually suffer from a clinically significant postpartum depressive illness. Yet even though the relationship between psychiatric disorders and the postpartum period has been documented since the time of Hippocrates, fewer than half of all these cases are recognized. OBJECTIVE Because postpartum depression (PPD), the most common complication of childbearing, remains poorly characterized, and its etiology remains unclear, we attempted to address a critical gap in the mechanistic understanding of PPD by probing its systems-level neuropathophysiology, in the context of a specific neurobiological model of fronto-limbic-striatal function. METHODS Using emotionally valenced word probes, with linguistic semantic specificity within an integrated functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) protocol, we investigated emotional processing, behavioral regulation, and their interaction (functions of clinical relevance to PPD), in the context of fronto-limbic-striatal function. RESULTS We observed attenuated activity in posterior orbitofrontal cortex for negative versus neutral stimuli with greater PPD symptomatology, increased amygdala activity in response to negative words in those without PPD symptomotology, and attenuated striatum activation to positive word conditions with greater PPD symptomotology. CONCLUSION Identifying the functional neuroanatomical profile of brain systems involved in the regulation of emotion and behavior in the postpartum period will not only assist in determining whether the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition psychiatric diagnostic specifier of PPD has an associated, unique, functional neuroanatomical profile, but a neurobiological characterization in relation to asymptomatic (postpartum non-depressed) control subjects, will also increase our understanding of the affective disorder spectrum, shed additional light on the possible mechanism(s) responsible for PPD and provide a necessary foundation for the development of more targeted, biologically based diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for PPD.
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