Traditional Use, Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Quality Control of Species in Genus Bupleurum L

Bupleurum exerts antiarrhythmic effects by inhibiting L-type calcium channels in mouse ventricular myocytes

BACKGROUND

Bupleurum (Bup), is a traditional effective medicine to treat colds and fevers in clinics. Multiple studies have demonstrated that Bup exhibites various biological activities, including cardioprotective effects, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antipyretic, antimicrobial, and antiviral effects, etc. Currently, the effects of Bup on cardiac electrophysiology have not been reported yet.

METHODS

Electrocardiogram recordings were used to investigate the effects of Bup on aconitine-induced arrhythmias. Patch-clamp techniques were used to explore the effects of Bup on APs and ion currents.

RESULTS

Bup reduced the incidence of ventricular fibrillation (VF) and delayed the onset time of ventricular tachycardia (VT) in mice. Additionally, Bup (40 mg/mL) suppressed DADs induced by high-Ca2+ and shortened action potential duration at 50 % completion of repolarization (APD50) and action potential duration at 90 % completion of repolarization (APD90) to 60.89 % ± 8.40 % and 68.94 % ± 3.24 % of the control, respectively. Moreover, Bup inhibited L-type calcium currents (ICa.L) in a dose-dependent manner, with an IC50 value of 25.36 mg/mL. Furthermore, Bup affected the gated kinetics of L-type calcium channels by slowing down steady-state activation, accelerating the steady-state inactivation, and delaying the inactivation-recovery process. However, Bup had no effects on the Transient sodium current (INa.T), ATX II-increased late sodium current (INa.L), transient outward current (Ito), delayed rectifier potassium current (IK), or inward rectifier potassium current (IK1).

CONCLUSION

Bup is an antiarrhythmic agent that may exert its antiarrhythmic effects by inhibiting L-type calcium channels.

Kaempferol: Antimicrobial Properties, Sources, Clinical, and Traditional Applications

Flavonoids are a category of plant-derived compounds which exhibit a large number of health-related effects. One of the most well-known and studied flavonoids is kaempferol, which can be found in a wide variety of herbs and plant families. Apart from their anticarcinogenic and anti-inflammatory effects, kaempferol and its associated compounds also exhibit antibacterial, antifungal, and antiprotozoal activities. The development of drugs and treatment schemes based on these compounds is becoming increasingly important in the face of emerging resistance of numerous pathogens as well as complex molecular interactions between various drug therapies. In addition, many of the kaempferol-containing plants are used in traditional systems all over the world for centuries to treat numerous conditions. Due to its variety of sources and associated compounds, some molecular mechanisms of kaempferol antimicrobial activity are well known while others are still under analysis. This paper thoroughly documents the vegetal and food sources of kaempferol as well as the most recent and significant studies regarding its antimicrobial applications.

Saikogenin F From Bupleurum smithii Ameliorates Learning and Memory Impairment via Antiinflammation Effect in an Alzheimer’s Disease Mouse Model

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease associated with aging. Bupleurum smithii Wolff. is a Chinese folk medicine used to reduce fever and inflammation. Regarding the key role of neuroinflammation in AD pathogenesis, it was speculated that B. smithii may be the source of compounds that treat AD through anti-inflammatory effects. This study aimed to investigate the effects of saikogenin F, a natural active ingredient from B. smithii, on cognition impairment and neuroinflammation in AD mice induced by amyloid β (Aβ). The AD mice model was established by intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection of Aβ, and different doses of saikogenin F (10, 20, and 40 mg/kg) were intragastrically administrated once daily. Results of behavioral experiments, including the novel object recognition (NOR) test, Y-maze test, and Morris water maze (MWZ) test, showed that saikogenin F could ameliorate Aβ-induced cognition impairment in AD mice. Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) results showed that tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels in hippocampal tissue increased after Aβ injection, while saikogenin F could significantly reduce the concentrations of these inflammatory factors. Western blotting results revealed that the Aβ-induced reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase subunits protein expression in mice hippocampus was remarkably downregulated by saikogenin F. Results of Iba-1 immunohistochemical staining showed that saikogenin F could effectively inhibit Aβ-induced activation of microglia in vivo. These results suggested that saikogenin F could relieve Aβ-induced cognitive impairment via inhibiting neuroinflammation and microglial activation. These effects may be achieved by inhibiting the expression of the NADPH oxidase subunits gp91phox and p47phox.

Saikosaponins: A Review of Structures and Pharmacological Activities

Radix Bupleuri is a traditional medicine widely used in China and other Asian countries. Phytochemistry and pharmacology study reveal that saikosaponins(SSs) are the main bioactive compounds in Radix Bupleuri. SSs are complex compounds composed of triterpene aglycone and carbohydrate part containing 1-13 monosaccharides, which can be divided into seven types based on their structural characteristics. Many different kinds of SSs have been isolated from plants of Bupleurum L. SSs show a variety of biological activities, such as central nervous system protection, liver protection, antivirus, anti-tumor, anti-inflammation, hormone-like effects, and immune regulation functions. Due to their broad activity and favorable safety profile, SSs attract an increasing amount of attention in recent years. In this review, the structures of 86 SSs are summarized based on the different aglycones due to the diverse structures of saikosaponin(SS). The pharmacological effects and related mechanism of SSs are thoroughly reviewed, and perspectives for future research are further discussed.

Global Perspective of Plant-Based Cosmetic Industry and Possible Contribution of Sri Lanka to the Development of Herbal Cosmetics

The global consumption of plant-based cosmetics has shown spectacular growth in recent years because of rising consumer awareness regarding the long-term health benefits of natural ingredients. As the global demand for herbal cosmetics increases, there are ample opportunities for Sri Lanka as a tropical Asian country to expand its productions and global exports along with its unique biodiversity and inherited traditional knowledge. Therefore, the present review attempts to give an overview of the widely used medicinal plants in the global herbal cosmetic industry and strengths, challenges, and possible solutions for the development of the herbal cosmetic industry of Sri Lanka. Information was collected using electronic search (using Pub Med, Science Direct, Web of Science, Google Scholar, TEEAL, and Scopus) for articles published in peer-reviewed journals, industrial reports, market surveys, and library search for local books on ethnobotany. Important plant-derived ingredients used in the global herbal cosmetic industry are essential oils, colorants, oils, fats, and waxes. The traditional usage of 108 medicinal plant species (belonging to 58 families) in cosmetic treatments was identified from the local books of Sri Lanka. Of these, 49 plant species were reported as new ingredients for the herbal cosmetic industry. However, the lack of ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological surveys to identify the cosmetic potential plants, insufficient or absence of continuous supply of raw materials for production in line with the existing demand, the lack of quality control of raw materials and finished cosmetic products, improper systematic cultivation systems for medicinal plants, poor postharvest practices, and the lack of innovations are major challenges encountered in Sri Lanka for the development of the herbal cosmetic industry. In conclusion, addressing these vital knowledge gaps is a timely requirement of the country for the sustainable development of the herbal cosmetic industry in Sri Lanka. Furthermore, assembling of the multidisciplinary cooperation of botanists, chemists, toxicologists, researchers, and biologists is crucial to analyze the interesting functional properties, efficacy, and effectiveness of documented medicinal plants with cosmetic potential.

Treatment of bilateral granulomatous lobular mastitis during lactation with traditional Chinese medicine: A case report

BACKGROUND

Granulomatous lobular mastitis (GLM) is a type of benign chronic inflammatory disease that poses therapeutic challenges to healthcare providers. The diagnosis of GLM relies on tissue biopsy, and incorrect treatment may lead to delayed diagnosis, considerable aesthetic damage, and even mastectomy.

CASE SUMMARY

We report the case of a 37-year-old Chinese woman who was lactating and had GLM in both breasts. At the time of treatment, the right breast had a mass of approximately 15 cm × 11 cm, which was hard and had poor mobility. Multiple skin ulcerations and pus spills were also observed on the surface of the breast. The left breast had a mass of about 13 cm × 9 cm, which was hard and had poor mobility.

CONCLUSION

Herein, we report a case of bilateral GLM in a lactating woman that was successfully treated with traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), without the requirement for surgery or other treatments. Therefore, TCM may have advantages in the nonsurgical treatment of GLM.

Recent Progress in Saikosaponin Biosynthesis in Bupleurum

BACKGROUND

Chaihu is a popular traditional Chinese medicine that has been used for centuries. It is traditionally used to treat cold fever and liver-related diseases. Saikosaponins (SSs) are one of the main active components of chaihu, in addition to essential oils, flavonoids, and polysaccharides. Considerable effort is needed to reveal the biosynthesis and regulation of SSs on the basis of current progress.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to provide a reference for further studies and arouse attention by summarizing the recent achievements of SS biosynthesis.

METHODS

All the data compiled and presented here were obtained from various online resources, such as PubMed Scopus and Baidu Scholar in Chinese, up to October 2019.

RESULTS

A few genes of the enzymes of SSs participating in the biosynthesis of SSs were isolated. Among these genes, only the P450 gene was verified to catalyze the SS skeleton β-amyrin synthase. Several UDP-glycosyltransferase genes were predicted to be involved in the biosynthesis of SSs. SSs could be largely biosynthesized in the phloem and then transported from the protoplasm, which is the biosynthetic site, to the vacuoles to avoid self-poisoning. As for the other secondary metabolites, the biosynthesis of SSs was strongly affected by environmental factors and the different species belonging to the genus of Bupleurum. Transcriptional regulation was studied at the molecular level.

CONCLUSION

Profound discoveries in SSs may elucidate the mechanism of diverse the monomer formation of SSs and provide a reference for maintaining the stability of SS content in Radix Bupleuri.

Antifungal and Anti-Inflammatory Potential of Bupleurum rigidum subsp. paniculatum (Brot.) H.Wolff Essential Oil

Fungal infections remain a major health concern with aromatic plants and their metabolites standing out as promising antifungal agents. The present study aims to assess, for the first time, the antifungal and anti-inflammatory potential of Bupleurum subsp. paniculatum (Brot.) H.Wolff essential oil from Portugal. The oil obtained by hydrodistillation and characterized by GC-MS, showed high amounts of monoterpene hydrocarbons, namely α-pinene (29.0-36.0%), β-pinene (26.1-30.7%) and limonene (10.5-13.5%). The antifungal potential was assessed, according to CLSI guidelines, against several clinical and collection strains. The essential oil showed a broad fungicidal effect being more potent against Cryptococcus neoformans and dermatophytes. Moreover, a significant germ tube inhibition was observed in Candida albicans as well as a disruption of mature biofilms, thus pointing out an effect of the oil against relevant virulent factors. Furthermore, fungal ultrastructural modifications were detected through transmission electron microscopy, highlighting the nefarious effect of the oil. Of relevance, the oil also evidenced anti-inflammatory activity through nitric oxide inhibition in macrophages activated with lipopolysaccharide. In addition, the essential oil's bioactive concentrations did not present toxicity towards macrophages. Overall, the present study confirmed the bioactive potential of B. rigidum subsp. paniculatum essential oil, thus paving the way for the development of effective drugs presenting concomitantly antifungal and anti-inflammatory properties.

Harmonizing Formula Prescription Patterns in Patients With Chronic Kidney Disease: A Population-Based Cross-Sectional Study

Objective: Harmonizing formulas are associated with beneficial renal outcomes in chronic kidney disease (CKD), but the therapeutic mechanisms are unclear. The study aims to explore the associations of intentions and independent factors with harmonizing formulas prescriptions for patients with CKD. Methods: We conducted a population-based cross-sectional study to explore factors associated with harmonizing formulas prescription. Patients who had been prescribed harmonizing formulas after CKD diagnosis was defined as the using harmonizing formulas group. Disease diagnoses when having harmonizing formula prescriptions and patient characteristics related to these prescriptions were collected. Results: In total, 24,971 patients were enrolled in this analysis, and 5,237 (21%) patients were prescribed harmonizing formulas after CKD diagnosis. The three most frequent systematic diseases and related health problems for which harmonizing formula prescriptions were issued in CKD were symptoms, signs, and ill-defined conditions (24.5%), diseases of the digestive system (20.67%), and diseases of the musculoskeletal system (12.9%). Higher likelihoods of harmonizing formula prescriptions were associated with young age (adjusted odds ratio: 0.98, 95% confidence interval: 0.97-0.98), female sex (1.79, 1.68-1.91), no diabetes (1.20, 1.06-1.36), no hypertension (1.38, 1.27-1.50), no cerebrovascular disease (1.34, 1.14-1.56), less disease severity (0.85, 0.83-0.88), using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (1.65, 1.54-1.78), and using analgesic drugs other than NSAIDs (1.47, 1.35-1.59). Conclusion: Harmonizing formulas are commonly used for treating symptoms of the digestive and musculoskeletal systems in CKD cases. Further research on harmonizing formula effectiveness with regard to particular characteristics of CKD patients is warranted.

Effects of saikosaponin-d on CYP3A4 in HepaRG cell and protein-ligand docking study

Saikosaponin-d (SSd) is a major bioactive triterpenoid saponin extracted from Bupleurum, which has anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidative and anti-hepatic fibrosis effects. Due to the effects of Bupleurum-related formulations on cytochrome P450 (CYPs) expression still remain unclear, the combination therapies involved formulations containing Bupleurum may sometimes lead to unexpected drug-drug interactions in clinical practice. These interactions can limit the clinical applications of related formulations. In this study, we tried to explore the effects of SSd on CYP3A4 mRNA, protein expression and the enzyme activity in HepaRG cells by real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), Western blot (WB) and HPLC method, respectively. The interaction between SSd and CYP3A4 was analysed by molecular docking. HepaRG cells were cultured with different concentrations of SSd (0.5, 1, 5 and 10 μmol/L) for 72 hours. It is revealed that SSd can inhibit CYP3A4 mRNA and its protein expression, and also the enzyme activity. Molecular docking study demonstrated that SSd can bind to several key active sites of amino acid residues of CYP3A4 protein with hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions. Thus, drug-drug interactions resulted by SSd inhibiting CYP3A4 need attention when formulations containing SSd or Bupleurum are co-administrated with drugs metabolized by CYP3A4.

Do Compositions of Lipid Fraction Correspond to Species Differentiation in Bupleurum L. (Apiaceae)?

Bupleurum L. has been widely used in various medical systems as an agent with a wide range of activities. The qualitative composition and content of lipid fraction components of the aerial parts of B. longifolium and B. chinense were elucidated in this work. The available data on the fatty acids (FAs) in Bupleurum plants were compiled and compared with species differentiation in the genus. As a result, the content of FAs in the studied Bupleurum plant species only partially corresponded to the species differentiation and, in some cases, contradicted it. The prognostic value of Bupleurum's species differentiation for the identification of the potential composition of FAs was insignificant, and it was limited only by particular groups of species. This suggests that a complete phytochemical study of Bupleurum species needs to be conducted to determine the composition of FAs and to identify which species have a similar composition.

Efficient and clean preparation of rare prosaikogenin D by enzymatic hydrolysis of saikosaponin B2 and response surface methodology optimization

Prosaikogenin D, a rare secondary saponin in Radix Bupleuri, has much higher in vivo bioactivities than its original glycoside saikosaponin B₂. Its preparation methods, such as conventional acid hydrolysis and column chromatograph, are unfriendly to environment with serious pollution and undesired products. The aim of this study was to establish an efficient and clean approach for convenient preparation of this rare steroid saponin based on the enzymatic hydrolysis. Cellulase was selected from four commercial enzymes due to its higher hydrolysis performance. Then the hydrolysis conditions were optimized by response surface methodology after preliminary investigation on affecting factors by single-factor experiments. The reaction system was constructed by 100 μg/mL of saikosaponin B₂ and 8.00 mg/mL of cellulase, which was incubated in HAc-NaAc buffer (pH 4.7) at 60 °C for 33 h. Consequently, a high conversion ratio of the substrate has been achieved at 95.04 %. The newly developed strategy is an efficient and clean approach for the preparation of prosaikogenin D and it is a promising technology in industrial application.

Plants-Derived Biomolecules as Potent Antiviral Phytomedicines: New Insights on Ethnobotanical Evidences against Coronaviruses

SARS-CoV-2 infection (COVID-19) is in focus over all known human diseases, because it is destroying the world economy and social life, with increased mortality rate each day. To date, there is no specific medicine or vaccine available against this pandemic disease. However, the presence of medicinal plants and their bioactive molecules with antiviral properties might also be a successful strategy in order to develop therapeutic agents against SARS-CoV-2 infection. Thus, this review will summarize the available literature and other information/data sources related to antiviral medicinal plants, with possible ethnobotanical evidence in correlation with coronaviruses. The identification of novel antiviral compounds is of critical significance, and medicinal plant based natural compounds are a good source for such discoveries. In depth search and analysis revealed several medicinal plants with excellent efficacy against SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV, which are well-known to act on ACE-2 receptor, 3CLpro and other viral protein targets. In this review, we have consolidated the data of several medicinal plants and their natural bioactive metabolites, which have promising antiviral activities against coronaviruses with detailed modes of action/mechanism. It is concluded that this review will be useful for researchers worldwide and highly recommended for the development of naturally safe and effective therapeutic drugs/agents against SARS-CoV-2 infection, which might be used in therapeutic protocols alone or in combination with chemically synthetized drugs.

Network pharmacology and RNA sequencing studies on triterpenoid saponins from Bupleurum chinense for the treatment of breast cancer

Breast cancer remains the most commonly diagnosed malignancy among women, which is frequently associated with adverse side-effects and high metastasis. Bupleurum chinense DC. has been empirically and extensively used as the core prescription for more than half of Chinese formulations for the adjuvant therapy of breast cancer, and its biological activity against breast cancer has been proven by both in vitro and in vivo experiments. Saikosaponin compounds are the characteristic constituent of B. chinense, which exhibit significant cytotoxicity toward several cancer cells. However, the specific mechanisms of these compounds in the treatment of breast cancer have not been comprehensively understood. Therefore, we aimed to determine more potentially therapeutic targets and investigate the biological mechanisms of B. chinense. In the present study, we adopted network pharmacology and bioinformatics analysis to facilitate this requirement. Consequently, the network analysis revealed that saikosaponin-f (39), saikosaponin-d (14), saikosaponin-c (26), saikosaponin-h (54), saikosaponin-g (41), 3′′,6′′-O-diacetylsaikosaponin-d (20), 11α-methoxy-saikosaponin-f (40), and 6′′-O-acetylsaikosaponin-b₁ (48) might play important roles in the treatment of breast cancer. In addition, the apoptosis regulator Bcl-2 (BCL-2), C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4), probable ATP-dependent RNA helicase DDX5 (DDX5), protein kinase C alpha (PRKCA), and proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Src (SRC) were the potential therapeutic targets that exhibited intense interactions. Mechanistically, a gene enrichment analysis revealed that the action of B. chinense against breast cancer was achieved by the regulation of several biological signaling pathways, such as pathways in cancer, PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistance, microRNAs in cancer, etc. More importantly, we verified that the predictions involving saikosaponin-d by the cytotoxicity assay, apoptosis analysis, and RNA sequencing methods were partly consistent with those obtained from the network pharmacology prediction.

The network pharmacology and RNA sequencing studies were used to explore potential therapeutic targets and biological mechanisms of B. chinense for the treatment of breast cancer.

Toxic polyacetylenes in the genus Bupleurum (Apiaceae) - Distribution, toxicity, molecular mechanism and analysis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The genus Bupleurum includes approximately 200 species that are widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere, Eurasia and North Africa. Certain species of this genus have long been used as antiphlogistic, antipyretic and analgesic agents in traditional folk medicine. As described in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, the roots of Bupleurum chinense DC. and B. scorzonerifolium Willd. are the herbal materials that compose Chaihu (Radix Bupleuri), a well-known TCM herb.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review aims to provide up-to-date and comprehensive information regarding the distribution, toxicity, molecular mechanism and relatively new methods for the qualitative and quantitative determination of polyacetylenes in different Bupleurum species.

METHOD

The information needed for this paper were sourced from publishing sites such as Elsevier, science Direct, PubMed; electronic search engines such as Scopus and Web of Science, Google scholar; other scientific database sites for chemicals such as ChemSpider, PubChem, SciFinder, and also from on line books.

RESULTS

Polyacetylenes, which are widely distributed in genus Bupleurum of the Apiaceae family, have high toxicity. Among polyacetylenes, bupleurotoxin, acetylbupleurotoxin and oenanthotoxin have strong neurotoxicity. Through previous research, it was found that the toxicity of Bupleurum polyacetylenes manifested as epileptic seizures, with the target of toxicity being the brain. The neurotoxicity of polyacetylenes exhibits a relationship with the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor pathway, and polyacetylenes have been shown to inhibit GABA-induced currents (I_GABA) in a competitive manner.

CONCLUSIONS

The plants of genus Bupleurum have been used in traditional medicine for thousands of years. However, certain species of this genus are poisonous, and it was attributed to the high content of polyacetylenes. The present review indicates that certain polyacetylenes in the genus Bupleurum have highly neurotoxic effects. The major challenge with regard to toxic polyacetylenes is to test their neurotoxic effects in vivo as well as in further preclinical studies, which will require large amounts of purified polyacetylenes. More reference substances should be prepared, and sophisticated analytical technologies should be developed to comprehensively assess the quality of Radix Bupleuri herbs. These investigations will be helpful for further utilization of the plants of genus Bupleurum.

Neuroprotective oleanane triterpenes from the roots of Bupleurum chinense

The discovery of new natural compounds with pharmacological properties is an increasingly important field, and a continuous phytochemical investigation of the roots of Bupleurum chinense D.C. has led to the isolation of 17 triterpenoids, including three new oleanane triterpenes (1-3) together with 14 known ones. Their structures were determined on the basis of 1D and 2D NMR spectra as well as HR-ESI-MS data. The cytotoxicities of all compounds against five selected human cancer cell lines were assayed. Only compounds 9 and 14 exhibited moderate activities. Recently, a number of investigations have focused on the neuroprotective properties of triterpenoids in B. chinense. In order to expand our knowledge about this herb, the neuroprotective effects of compounds 1-17 against hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-induced neuronal cell damage in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells were evaluated. Compounds 1-3, 6-7 showed significant neuroprotective effects against H2O2-induced SH-SY5Y cell death. Preliminary structure-activity relationships (SARs) between neuroprotective effects and the isolates were also discussed.