Central effect of crocin on penicillin-induced epileptiform activity in rats

Research progress on the pharmacological activity, biosynthetic pathways, and biosynthesis of crocins

Crocins are water-soluble apocarotenoids isolated from the flowers of crocus and gardenia. They exhibit various pharmacological effects, including neuroprotection, anti-inflammatory properties, hepatorenal protection, and anticancer activity. They are often used as coloring and seasoning agents. Due to the limited content of crocins in plants and the high cost of chemical synthesis, the supply of crocins is insufficient to meet current demand. The biosynthetic pathways for crocins have been elucidated to date, which allows the heterologous production of these valuable compounds in microorganisms by fermentation. This review article provides a comprehensive overview of the chemistry, pharmacological activity, biosynthetic pathways, and heterologous production of crocins, aiming to lay the foundation for the large-scale production of these valuable natural products by using engineered microbial cell factories.

Neuropharmacological insights into Gardenia jasminoides Ellis: Harnessing therapeutic potential for central nervous system disorders

BACKGROUND

In China, Gardenia jasminoides Ellis (GJE) has a longstanding history of application. The Ministry of Health has listed it as one of the first pharmaceutical or food resources. In ethnic, traditional, and folk medicine, GJE has been used to treat fever and cold and relieve nervous anxiety. Recent studies have confirmed the significant efficacy of GJE for treating central nervous system (CNS) disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and major depressive disorder; however, GJE has not been systematically evaluated.

PURPOSE

This research systematically summarizes global studies on the use of GJE for treating CNS disorders and explores the potential applications and underlying mechanisms via intestinal flora analysis and network pharmacology, aiming to establish a scientific basis for innovative CNS disorder treatment with GJE.

METHODS

The PRISMA guidelines were used, and electronic databases such as the Web of Science, PubMed, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure were searched using the following search terms: "Gardenia jasminoides Ellis" with "central nervous system disease," "neuroprotection," "Alzheimer's disease," "Parkinson's disease," "ischemic stroke," "Epilepsy," and "major depressive disorder." The published literature up to September 2023 was searched to obtain relevant information on the application of GJE for treating CNS disorders.

RESULTS

There has been an increase in research on the material formulation and mechanisms of action of GJE for treating CNS disorders, with marked effects on CNS disorder treatment in different countries and regions. We summarized the research results related to the role of GJE in vitro and in vivo via multitargeted interventions in response to the complex mechanisms of action of CNS disorders.

CONCLUSION

We systematically reviewed the research progress on traditional treatment for GJE and preclinical mechanisms of CNS disorders and explored the potential of optimizing network pharmacology strategies and intestinal flora analysis to elucidate the mechanisms of action of GJE. The remarkable therapeutic efficacy of GJE, an important resource in traditional medicine, has been well documented in the literature, highlighting its significant medicinal potential.

The Golden Spice for Life: Turmeric with the Pharmacological Benefits of Curcuminoids Components, Including Curcumin, Bisdemethoxycurcumin, and Demethoxycurcumins

BACKGROUND

Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.), belonging to the Zingiberaceae family, is a perennial rhizomatous plant of tropical and subtropical regions. The three major chemical components responsible for the biological activities of turmeric are curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, and bisdemethoxycurcumin.

METHODS

The literature search included review articles, analytical studies, randomized control experiments, and observations, which have been gathered from various sources, such as Scopus, Google Scholar, PubMed, and ScienceDirect. A review of the literature was carried out using the keywords: turmeric, traditional Chinese medicine, traditional Iranian medicine, traditional Indian medicine, curcumin, curcuminoids, pharmaceutical benefits, turmerone, demethoxycurcumin, and bisdemethoxycurcumin. The main components of the rhizome of the leaf are α-turmerone, β-turmerone, and arturmerone.

RESULTS

The notable health benefits of turmeric are antioxidant activity, gastrointestinal effects, anticancer effects, cardiovascular and antidiabetic effects, antimicrobial activity, photoprotector activity, hepatoprotective and renoprotective effects, and appropriate for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and inflammatory and edematic disorders.

DISCUSSION

Curcuminoids are phenolic compounds usually used as pigment spices with many health benefits, such as antiviral, antitumour, anti-HIV, anti-inflammatory, antiparasitic, anticancer, and antifungal effects. Curcumin, bisdemethoxycurcumin, and demethoxycurcumin are the major active and stable bioactive constituents of curcuminoids. Curcumin, which is a hydroponic polyphenol, and the main coloring agent in the rhizomes of turmeric, has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer, and anticarcinogenic activities, as well as beneficial effects for infectious diseases and Alzheimer's disease. Bisdemethoxycurcumin possesses antioxidant, anti-cancer, and anti-metastasis activities. Demethoxycurcumin, which is another major component, has anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and anti-cancer activities and is the appropriate candidate for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

CONCLUSION

The goal of this review is to highlight the health benefits of turmeric in both traditional and modern pharmaceutical sciences by considering the important roles of curcuminoids and other major chemical constituents of turmeric.

The Effect of High-Dose Methyl Vitamin B12 Therapy on Epileptogenesis in Rats: An In Vivo Study

Introduction Epileptogenesis has been considered one of the most prevalent diseases affecting significant numbers of individuals worldwide. Since vitamin B12 has been reported to possess antiepileptic effects, this supports that vitamin B12 deficiency is correlated to seizure occurrence. Hence, this study aimed to evaluate the neuroprotective effects of vitamin B12 injection on pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced rats. Methods The study was performed using 40 adult female Sprague-Dawley rats (~250 g). A 45 mg/kg PTZ was intraperitoneally injected into rat models to induce seizure effects. Different groups of rat models received methyl vitamin B12 therapy at different dosages, a low dosage of 45 µg/kg and a high dosage of 85 µg/kg, at different pre-treatment periods, one day and two weeks prior to PTZ injection. A control group, which received only PTZ injection, served as a reference. The seizure latency, seizure intensity, and differences in the quality of seizures and their characteristics, from simple twitches to complete seizures, were observed after 30 minutes of PTZ injection. Results In general, the latency to convulsion significantly increased when vitamin B12 pre-treatment was employed. The longest latency time (LT) of 520.63±73.83 seconds was observed when a high dosage of vitamin B12 at 85 µg/kg was injected one day prior to PTZ inoculation, which was significantly higher than that of the control group at 176.88±62.67 seconds (P<0.001). Moreover, the duration of convulsion significantly decreased in which the lowest duration time (DT) of 7.00±4.68 seconds was observed when a high dosage of vitamin B12 at 85 µg/kg was injected two weeks prior to PTZ inoculation, which was significantly lower than that of the control group at 257.75±41.93 seconds (P<0.001). Lastly, the percentage of the population with PTZ-induced convulsion generally decreased after vitamin B12 pre-treatment in which majority showed more of simple less aggressive twitches rather than tonic-clonic seizures. Conclusion The results showed that vitamin B12 pre-treatment alleviates the seizure occurrence among PTZ-kindled rat models. These findings then suggest that vitamin B12 is a potential strategy and treatment for epilepsy and other related epileptogenesis activities.

Comprehensive characterization of ingredients in Crocus sativus L. from different origins based on the combination of targeted and nontargeted strategies

As a valuable medicinal and edible plant, Crocus sativus L. has had wide applications since ancient times. Herein, a comprehensive approach for characterization of constituents in saffron was established based on the combination of targeted and non-targeted strategies. A targeted UPLC-ESI/MSⁿ strategy was applied for in-depth identification of crocins, and a non-targeted UPLC-ESI/MS² approach characterized other components. This integration strategy was used to analyze ingredients in 21 batches of saffrons from 6 origins. Forty-seven crocins belonging to 8 types were identified including 32 new crocins. Among them, 6 new compounds with specific structures were reported for the first time, i.e. trans-6(G, 2G), trans-4(GT, g), trans-3(GT), cis-3(GT), methyl ester-trans-2(G) and methyl ester-cis-2(G). Besides, 91 non-crocin components were identified including 43 new compounds. Based on systematic investigation of crocins and non-crocins, we found that crocins were the critical components to distinguish saffrons from different origins, especially between domestic and foreign samples.

Anti-Epileptic Effect of Crocin on Experimental Temporal Lobe Epilepsy in Mice

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is a common kind of refractory epilepsy. More than 30% TLE patients were multi-drug resistant. Some patients may even develop into status epilepticus (SE) because of failing to control seizures. Thus, one of the avid goals for anti-epileptic drug development is to discover novel potential compounds to treat TLE or even SE. Crocin, an effective component of Crocus sativus L., has been applied in several epileptogenic models to test its anti-epileptic effect. However, it is still controversial and its effect on TLE remains unclear. Therefore, we investigated the effects of crocin on epileptogenesis, generalized seizures (GS) in hippocampal rapid electrical kindling model as well as SE and spotaneous recurrent seizure (SRS) in pilocarpine-induced TLE model in ICR mice in this study. The results showed that seizure stages and cumulative afterdischarge duration were significantly depressed by crocin (20 and 50 mg/kg) during hippocampal rapid kindling acquisition. And crocin (100 mg/kg) significantly reduced the incidence of GS and average seizure stages in fully kindled animals. In pilocarpine-induced TLE model, the latency of SE was significantly prolonged and the mortality of SE was significantly decreased by crocin (100 mg/kg), which can also significantly suppress the number of SRS. The underlying mechanism of crocin may be involved in the protection of neurons, the decrease of tumor necrosis factor-α in the hippocampus and the increase of brain derived neurotrophic factor in the cortex. In conclusion, crocin may be a potential and promising anti-epileptic compound for treatment of TLE.

A Comparison of Methylphenidate (MPH) and Combined Methylphenidate with Crocus sativus (Saffron) in the Treatment of Children and Adolescents with ADHD: A Randomized, Double-blind, Parallel-Group, Clinical Trial

Background: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by behavioral and neurodevelopmental problems. It is estimated that 3 - 7% of children and adolescents suffer from this problem. Apart from synthetic drugs, other effective types of medication like herbal medicines are of great importance. Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of methylphenidate (MPH) and its combination with Crocus sativus (saffron) in the treatment of children suffering from ADHD. Methods: The sample included 70 children aged between 6 and 16 years who had been diagnosed with ADHD. The patients were randomly assigned into two equal groups (n = 35 in each group). While both groups received 20 or 30 mg/d of MPH (20 and 30 mg/d for < 30 and > 30, respectively), one of them also received 20 or 30 mg/d of saffron in a capsule based on BMI (20 and 30 mg/d for < 30 and > 30, respectively). To collect data, parents and teachers completed Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Rating Scale-IV (ADHD-RS-IV). Also, for analyzing the data, the repeated measures analysis of variance (RMANOVA) was used. Results: The results of general linear model (GLM) repeated measures indicated that in both groups, the patients had less symptoms after eight weeks of treatment. However, after four weeks, the average score assigned by the parents and teachers in the MPH with saffron group was lower than the average total score in the MPH group (P < 0.05). Conclusions: Using MPH combined with saffron proved to be more effective in the treatment of patients suffering from ADHD compared to separate treatments. It seems that the duration of therapy can be reduced and the effectiveness be improved by prescribing proposed combined treatment.

Effects of intraperitoneal and intracerebroventricular injection of cinnamaldehyde and yohimbine on blood glucose and serum insulin concentrations in ketamine-xylazine induced acute hyperglycemia

This study was designed to investigate the effects of peripheral [intraperitoneal (IP)] and central [intracerebroventricular (ICV)] administration of cinnamaldehyde on concentrations of blood glucose and serum insulin in the acute hyperglycemia induced by ketamine/xylazine. Yohimbine (a α₂-adrenoceptor antagonist) was used alone and in combination with cinnamaldehyde to explore the α₂-adrenergic receptor contribution. A total of 48 rats were divided into eight groups with six rats in each for IP administration of normal saline, vehicle, cinnamaldehyde (25.00, 50.00 and 100 mg kg^-1), yohimbine (0.50 and 2.00 mg kg^-1) and cinnamaldehyde plus yohimbine. These rats were used again for ICV administration 15 days after the completion of IP experiment. During this 15 days period, the lateral ventricle of the brain was surgically cannulated for ICV administration of normal saline, vehicle, cinna-maldehyde (25.00, 50.00 and 100 µg per rat), yohimbine (5.00 and 20.00 µg per rat) and cinnamaldehyde plus yohimbine. Blood glucose levels were measured from tail blood using a glucometer and serum insulin concentrations were determined via enzyme-linked immune-sorbent assay kit. The increased levels of blood glucose and the decreased concentrations of serum insulin were significantly decreased and increased, respectively, by separate and combined IP and ICV administrations of cinnamaldehyde and yohimbine. The systemic effects of these chemical compounds were significantly greater than the central ones. Based on the results, it can be argued that cinnamaldehyde has a potential to induce anti-hyperglycemic and antihypoinsulinemic effects. Peripheral and central α₂-adrenegic receptors might be involved in these effects of cinnamaldehyde.

The GABAA-Benzodiazepine Receptor Antagonist Flumazenil Abolishes the Anxiolytic Effects of the Active Constituents of Crocus sativus L. Crocins in Rats

Anxiety is a chronic severe psychiatric disorder. Crocins are among the various bioactive components of the plant Crocus sativus L. (Iridaceae) and their implication in anxiety is well-documented. However, which is the mechanism of action underlying the anti-anxiety effects of crocins remains unknown. In this context, it has been suggested that these beneficial effects might be ascribed to the agonistic properties of these bioactive ingredients of saffron on the GABA type A receptor. The current experimentation was undertaken to clarify this issue in the rat. For this research project, the light/dark and the open field tests were used. A single injection of crocins (50 mg/kg, i.p., 60 min before testing) induces an anti-anxiety-like effect revealed either in the light-dark or open field tests. Acute administration of the GABA_A-benzodiazepine receptor antagonist flumazenil (10 mg/kg, i.p., 30 min before testing) abolished the above mentioned anxiolytic effects of crocins. The current findings suggest a functional interaction between crocins and the GABA_A receptor allosteric modulator flumazenil on anxiety.

Neuroprotective Potency of Saffron Against Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Neurodegenerative Diseases, and Other Brain Disorders: From Bench to Bedside

The increasing morbidity rates of brain disorders and conditions such as anxiety, depression, Alzheimer’s disease, and Parkinson’s disease have become a severe problem in recent years. Although researchers have spent considerable time studying these diseases and reported many positive outcomes, there still are limited drugs available for their treatment. As a common traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), saffron was employed to treat depression and some other inflammatory diseases in ancient China due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antidepressant properties. In modern times, saffron and its constituents have been utilized, alone and in TCM formulas, to treat neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we mainly focus on recent clinical and preclinical trials of brain disorders in which saffron was applied, and summarize the neuroprotective properties of saffron and its constituents from chemical, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacological perspectives. We discuss the properties of saffron and its constituents, as well as their applications for treating brain disorders; we hope that this review will serve as a comprehensive reference for studies aimed at developing therapeutic drugs based on saffron.

Intra-cerebroventricular Administration of Crocin Attenuates Sleep Deprivation-induced Hyperalgesia in Rats

Introduction

Sleep deprivation can cause hyperalgesia and interfere with analgesic treatments. The aim of the present study was to establish an obligatory sleep-abstinence model and also evaluate the effects of Intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection of crocin on pain perception in Wistar rats.

Methods

In this experimental study, 35 adult male Wistar rats were randomly divided into 5 groups (n=7). The intra-ventricular cannulation was done for all rats before sleep deprivation. Sleep deprivation was performed by placing animals on a chamber equipped with an automatic animated conveyor (5 s with an interval of 3 min) for 72 h. Subsequently, the sleep-deprived animals received ICV injection of saline (MOD), Morphine 10 μg (MOR), Crocin 10 ug (Cr10), and Crocin40 μg (Cr40) using a microsyringe. Besides, a non-sleep-deprived group was allocated as a Control Group (NC) and only received an ICV injection of saline. Fifteen minutes after the ICV injections, pain perception was evaluated by the hot plate test (54±0.4°C).

Results

Compared with the NC group, latency significantly decreased in the MOD group (6.28±0.48 vs. 4.28± 0.48, P<0.0001). In comparison with the MOD group, both morphine (8.42±1.53) and crocin (7.60±1.45 for Cr10 and 8.14±0.89 for Cr40) could significantly increase latency in the sleep-deprived animals (P<0.0001). There was no statistically significant difference between the Cr10 and Cr40 (P=0.42), Cr10, and MOR (P=0.059) and Cr40 with MOR (P=0.86) groups.

Conclusion

Our results indicated that crocin could attenuate hyperalgesia induced by sleep deprivation in rats.

Therapeutic potentials of crocin in medication of neurological disorders

Neurological sicknesses are serious, multifactorial, debilitating disorders that may cause neurodegeneration. Neuroprotection is the protection of the structure and capacity of neurons from affronts emerging from cell injuries instigated by an assortment of specialists or neurodegenerative diseases. Various neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and epilepsy, afflict many people worldwide, with increasing age representing the leading risk factor. Crocin is a natural carotenoid compound which was found to have therapeutic potentials in the management of the neurological disease. In this review, we focused on the restorative capabilities of Crocin as a neuroprotective agent. The general neuroprotective impact and the various conceivable basic components identified with Crocin have been examined. In light of the substantial proof indicating the neuro-pharmacological viability of Crocin to different exploratory standards, it is concluded that Crocin exerts direct antioxidant, antiapoptotic and anti-inflammatory activities by multiple signaling pathways. Besides, Crocin was found to elevate dopamine level in the brain during the experimental model of Parkinson's disease. Thus, this compound has been demonstrated to be a promising option for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, with few adverse effects. It ought to be further considered as a potential contender for neuro-therapeutics, concentrating on the mechanistic and clinical evidence for its effects.

Role of aqueous extract of saffron in ameliorating effect of sofosbuvir on the cerebellar cortex in rat

Sofosbuvir is a promising antiviral drug against chronic hepatitis C virus. Although it is characterized by its high efficacy, its adverse effects on nervous tissue are still unclear. Saffron is known for its neuroprotective property. This is a biochemical, histological and immunohistochemical study of the effect of sofosbuvir on the cerebellar cortex of rat and the possible ameliorating role of saffron's aqueous extract. Twenty-four adult male Wistar albino rats were equally divided into four groups; control, saffron extract-treated, sofosbuvir-treated (41.1 mg/kg/day for 6 weeks) and group concomitantly treated with saffron extract and sofosbuvir. Sofosbuvir-treated group recorded a significant increase in cerebellar malondialdehyde level coupling with a significant decrease in tissue glutathione and superoxide dismutase. Light microscopy revealed reduced number of Purkinje cells. The granular layer depicted many granular cells and Bergmann astrocytes with nuclear and cytoplasmic alterations. Electron microscopy revealed disorganized molecular layer with disarranged myelinated axons and disrupted mitochondria. Few shrunken Purkinje cells showed electron-dense cytoplasm and rarefied nuclei, indistinct nuclear envelope and dilated perinuclear space, areas of vacuolated cytoplasm, fragmented rough endoplasmic reticulum and few dark mitochondria. Some axons with tiny mitochondria were detected. A significant upregulation in immunohistochemical expression of GFAP-positive astrocytes was recorded. Concomitant administration of saffron extract significantly improved all studied parameters. Saffron extract is beneficial in ameliorating sofosbuvir-induced cerebellar morphological changes mainly through its antioxidant and neuroprotective properties.

Paradoxical Anticonvulsant Effect of Cefepime in the Pentylenetetrazole Model of Seizures in Rats

Many β-lactam antibiotics, including cephalosporins, may cause neurotoxic and proconvulsant effects. The main molecular mechanism of such effects is considered to be γ-aminobutyric acid type a (GABAa) receptor blockade, leading to the suppression of GABAergic inhibition and subsequent overexcitation. We found that cefepime (CFP), a cephalosporin, has a pronounced antiepileptic effect in the pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizure model by decreasing the duration and severity of the seizure and animal mortality. This effect was specific to the PTZ model. In line with findings of previous studies, CFP exhibited a proconvulsant effect in other models, including the maximal electroshock model and 4-aminopyridine model of epileptiform activity, in vitro. To determine the antiepileptic mechanism of CFP in the PTZ model, we used whole-cell patch-clamp recordings. We demonstrated that CFP or PTZ decreased the amplitude of GABAa receptor-mediated postsynaptic currents. PTZ also decreased the current decay time constant and temporal summation of synaptic responses. In contrast, CFP slightly increased the decay time constant and did not affect summation. When applied together, CFP prevented alterations to the summation of responses by PTZ, strongly reducing the effects of PTZ on repetitive inhibitory synaptic transmission. The latter may explain the antiepileptic effect of CFP in the PTZ model.

Crocin may be useful to prevent or treatment of alcohol induced neurodegeneration and neurobehavioral sequels via modulation of CREB/BDNF and Akt/GSK signaling pathway

The neurodegeneration and neurobehavioral consequences of alcohol are serious and offering therapeutic approaches for management of these types of neurodegeneration is one of the main concerns of researchers in this manner. Alcohol-stimulated oxidative stress, apoptosis and inflammation, with modulation of involved signaling pathway in neuroprotection, was reported previously. Neuroprotective strategy for management of alcohol induced neurodegeneration through a new generation neuroprotective agent and based on modulation of some neuroprotective signaling pathway such as CREB/BDNF and Akt/GSK has always been superior to any other therapeutic interventions. Therefore, the introduction and development of potential new neuroprotective properties and clarification of their effects on major cell signaling such as CREB/BDNF and Akt/GSK is necessitated. During recent years, using new neuroprotective compounds with therapeutic probability for treatment of alcohol induced neuro-biochemical and neuro-behavioral malicious effects have been amazingly increased. Many previous studies have reported the neuroprotective roles of crocin (major active component of saffron) in multiple neurodegenerative events and diseases in animal model. But the role of crocin neuroprotective effects against alcohol induced neurodegeneration and neurobehavioral sequels and also role of CREB/BDNF and Akt/GSK in this manner remain unclear. Hence we hypothesized that by using crocin in alcohol dependent subject it would provide neuroprotection against alcohol induced neurodegeneration and neurobehavioral and probably can manage sequels of alcohol abuses. Also we hypothesized that crocin, via intonation of CREB/BDNF and Akt/GSK signaling pathway, can inhibit alcohol induced neurodegeneration. In this article, we tried to discuss our hypothesis regarding the possible role of crocin, as a potent neuroprotective agent, and also role of Akt/GSK and CREB/BDNF signaling pathway in treatment of alcohol induced neurodegeneration and neurobehavioral through its anti-inflammatory,anti-apoptotic, anti-oxidative stress and cognitive enhancer.

Bioactivity assessment and toxicity of crocin: a comprehensive review

Since ancient times, saffron, the dried stigma of the plant Crocus sativus L. has been extensively used as a spice and food colorant; in folk medicine it has been reputed to be efficacious for the alleviation and treatment of ailments. In addition to the three founded major constituents including crocin, picrocrocin and safranal, presence of carotenoids, carbohydrates, proteins, anthocyanins, vitamins and minerals provide valuable insights into the health benefits and nutritional value of saffron. Of the carotenoids present in saffron, highly water-soluble crocin (mono and diglycosyl esters of a polyene dicarboxylic acid, named crocetin) is responsible for the majority of its color, and appears to possess various health-promoting properties, as an antioxidant, antitumor, memory enhancer, antidepressant, anxiolytic and aphrodisiac. It is also worth noting that the crocin principle of saffron exhibited high efficacy along with no major toxicity in experimental models. We would be remiss to not consider the great potential of saffron and crocin, which benefits the cuisine and health of human life throughout the world. The present study provides a comprehensive and updated report of empirical investigations on bioactivities and biological characteristics of crocin.