Simultaneous Determination of Androgens and Progestogen in Surface Water and Sediment by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

Determination of acetylgestagens in animal-derived matrix samples using enhanced matrix removal lipid clean-up in combination with ultra performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

A robust and confirmative method was established for the determination of six acetylgestagen residues, namely, flurogestone acetate (FGA), megestrol (MA), melengestrol acetate (MGA), chlormadinone acetate (CMA), medroxyprogesterone (MPA), and hydroxyprogesterone acetate (HPA) in animal-derived matrix samples by utilizing enhanced matrix removal lipid (EMR-lipid) clean-up in combination with ultra performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). The analytes were extracted with acetonitrile, purified with a EMR-lipid cartridge, and separated with a reversed-phase C18 column. The limit of quantification (S/N ≥ 10) for CMA, FGA, HPA, MA, and MGA in all matrices was 0.5 ng/g, and for MPA, it was 1.0 ng/g; the limit of detection (S/N ≥ 3) for CMA, FGA, HPA, MA, and MGA in all matrices was 0.1 ng/g, and for MPA, it was 0.2 ng/g. The recoveries were between 61.0% and 114.8%, and the relative standard deviations (RSDs) were below 12%. The method was calibrated in a matrix-assisted standard solution in various linear ranges for the analytes and matrices, and the correlation coefficients (R²) exceeded 0.99 for all the matrices.

Overview of the analysis, occurrence and ecological effects of hormones in lake waters in Asia

Hormones are natural and synthetic compounds that are now being detected in the aquatic environment. Many lakes in Asia are important water sources that may be affected by these emerging contaminants. Lakes are drains and reservoirs of watersheds that are altered by changing land use and environmental conditions. While there are several studies on the detection of hormones in lakes, these studies were mostly done in China. Limited information is available on the presence of these contaminants in the lakes in other Asian countries. Hormones in the lake water come from discharge waters in urban areas, farm runoffs, and effluents of wastewater and sewage treatment plants. Hormones contamination in water has been shown to affect the reproduction and growth of certain aquatic organisms. In this review, a background on the chemical nature and physiological functions of hormones is provided and the existing knowledge on the occurrence and ecological impacts of hormones in lakes is described. The available analytical methods for sampling, analyte extraction and instrumental analysis are outlined. This overview provides insights on the current conditions of lakes that may be impacted by hormones contamination. Understanding the levels and possible ecological consequences will address the issues on these emerging contaminants especially in the Asian environment. This will elicit discussions on improving guidelines on wastewater discharges and will drive future research directions.

Assessment of water contamination and health risk of endocrine disrupting chemicals in outdoor and indoor swimming pools

The occurrence of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in swimming pool waters has been scarcely investigated. In this study, the concentrations of 20 EDCs (4 phenols, 6 estrogens, 4 progestogens, 5 androgens, and 1 pharmaceutical) in 40 outdoor and indoor swimming pools in Changsha, China were investigated. Out of them, two phenols (bisphenol A and 4-tert-octylphenol), three estrogens (17β-estradiol, 17ɑ-ethinlestradiol (EE2), and hexestrol), one pharmaceutical (caffeine), and two progestogens (progesterone and levonorgestrel) were detected in the collected samples. The androgens were not detected. Bisphenol A and caffeine were the dominant EDCs at concentrations of ND-23.22 ng/L and ND-39.08 ng/L, respectively. The levels of caffeine were significantly higher in indoor swimming pools (11.15 ng/L in average) than those in outdoor pools (1.90 ng/L in average) (p < 0.05), owing to the less sun's UV radiation and less use of sunscreens containing caffeine. The progestogens (progesterone and levonorgestrel) and estrogens (17β-estradiol and hexestrol) were only detected in outdoor swimming pools. The detection frequencies and concentrations of bisphenol A and caffeine in downtown pools were significantly higher than those in outskirt pools. Besides, the correlations between the concentrations of EDCs and water quality parameters evaluated by the Spearman correlation analysis implied that residual chlorine had strong oxidant capable to bisphenol A and suggested that caffeine could be a potential indicator of organic contamination in swimming pool water. Finally, a quantitative risk assessment revealed that non-athletic child and athletic adult female were vulnerable subpopulations. The EDI_total of EE2 for athletic child, non-athletic female, non-athletic male, and non-athletic child were higher than ADI_EE2 adopted by Australia and the EDI_total of EE2 for athletic female and athletic male were higher than ADI_EE2 adopted by the United States.

Occurrence, removal, and fate of progestogens, androgens, estrogens, and phenols in six sewage treatment plants around Dianchi Lake in China

The occurrence and behavior of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in sewage treatment plants (STPs), especially estrogens and phenols, have been closely concerned in previous studies. However, the systematical researches about progestogens and androgens were scarce in STPs adopting different treatment technologies. This work investigated the occurrence, removal, and fate of one progestogen, three androgens, four estrogens, and six phenols in six STPs around Dianchi Lake in China, where the influents, effluents of primary treatment, secondary treatment, and advanced treatment, as well as excess sludge samples, were analyzed. All of the above EDCs were detected out in influents of the six STPs. Bisphenol A, nonylphenol-mono-ethoxylate, and nonylphenol-diethoxylate were the dominant EDCs detected in those influent samples with the concentrations that varied from 637.6 to 1,684.0 ng/L, 633.8 to 1,540.0 ng/L, and 648.7 to 2,246.0 ng/L, respectively; E1 and dihydrotestosterone were the major steroids with the mean concentration of 126.8 and 277.4 ng/L. For effluents and sludges, phenols showed higher concentration (366.8-1,233.0 ng/L and 1,478.1-6,948.9 ng/g dry weight (dw)) and detection rate (100 %). The total removal rates were more than 80 % for most compounds in wastewater treatment processes, and high removal efficiency (86-100 %) was found for androgens and progestogens compared with estrogens (75-92 %) and phenols (62-85 %). The secondary treatment processes play significant roles on degrading EDCs, whereas the primary sedimentation has little effects. The treatment capacity of anoxic-anaerobic-anoxic membrane bioreactor and anaerobic/anoxic/oxic technologies was superior to the conventional oxidation ditch in the degradation of EDCs. The advanced treatment process, two units of filter (D-type or V-type), and ultraviolet disinfection were adopted and presented effective to remove these compounds. According to fate analysis, it was obvious that biological degradation was the main pathway on the removal of EDCs in STPs compared with adsorption. Risk quotients were calculated to assess ecological risks of those EDCs. Risk quotients of 54 and 61 % were more than 1 in effluents and sludges, respectively, showing potential hazard of effluents and sludges to the environment.

Occurrence, fate and environmental risk assessment of endocrine disrupting compounds at the wastewater treatment works in Pietermaritzburg (South Africa)

Steroid hormone Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (EDCs) (natural estrogens (17-β-estradiol (E2), estrone (E1), estriol (E3), synthetic estrogen (17-α-ethinylestradiol (EE2)), natural androgen (testosterone) (tes) and natural progestogen (progesterone) (pro)) at an activated sludge wastewater works (WWW), were quantitated using Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The steroid hormone profile in the adjacent surface water was also determined. Pro was the most abundant (41%, 408 ng/L) in the influent, followed by tes (35%, 343 ng/L) and E2 (12%, 119 ng/L). E1 was the most abundant (35%, 23 ng/L) in effluent, followed by E2 (30%, 20 ng/L) and tes (17%, 11 ng/L). Chemical removal efficiencies of the steroid hormones by the WWW averaged 92%. High removal efficiency was observed for pro (98% ± 2) and tes (96% ± 1), compared to natural (72-100%) and synthetic estrogen (90% ± 3), with biodegradation being the major removal route for pro and tes. The lowest removal for E2 is in spring (65%), and maximum removal is in winter (95%). Natural (E2, E1) and synthetic estrogen (EE2) were major contributors to influent (E2 = 69%) and effluent (E2 = 73%) estrogenic potency. The estrogenic potency removal averaged 85% (range: 73-100). Risk assessment of the steroid hormones present in wastewater effluent, and surface water, indicated that EE2 and E2 pose the highest risk to human health and fish. EE2 was found to be much more resistant to biodegradation, compared to E2, in surface water. Estrone, as the breakdown product of E2 and EE2 in wastewater, appears to be suitable as an indicator of EDCs. The study suggests that a battery of tests: quantitative chemical assay, bioassay for estrogenic activity and risk assessment methods, collectively, are preferred in order to make meaningful, accurate conclusions regarding potential adverse effects of EDCs present in treated wastewater effluent or surface water, to the aquatic environment, human health, and wildlife systems.