In vivo anti-salmonella activity of aqueous extract of Euphorbia prostrata Aiton (Euphorbiaceae) and its toxicological evaluation

Unraveling the treasure trove of phytochemicals in mitigating the Salmonella enterica infection

Foodborne diseases triggered by various infectious micro-organisms are contributing significantly to the global disease burden as well as to increasing mortality rates. Salmonella enterica belongs to the most prevalent form of bacteria accountable for significant burden of foodborne illness across the globe. The conventional therapeutic approach to cater to Salmonella enterica-based infections relies on antibiotic therapy, but the rapid emergence of the antibiotic resistance strains of Salmonella sp. necessitates the development of alternative treatment and prevention strategies. In light of this growing concern, the scientific community is rigorously exploring novel phytochemicals harnessed from medicinally important plants as a promising approach to curb Salmonella enterica infections. A variety of phytochemicals belonging to alkaloids, phenols, flavonoid, and terpene classes are reported to exhibit their inhibitory activity against bacterial cell communication, membrane proteins, efflux pumps, and biofilm formation among drug resistant Salmonella strains. The present review article delves to discuss the emergence of antibiotic resistance among Salmonella enterica strains, various plant sources, identification of phytochemicals, and the current state of research on the use of phytochemicals as antimicrobial agents against Salmonella enterica, shedding light on the promising potential of phytochemicals in the fight against this pathogen.

In vivo anti-Salmonella properties of aqueous extract of prickly pear (Opuntia ficus indica) cladode, hepatological and toxicological evaluation

The present study aimed to evaluate antidiarrheal potential of prickly pear cladode and its hepatoprotective role in different groups of diarrhea-induced mice. Mice received cefixime (4 mg/kg of bw) and different concentrations of aqueous cladode extract (250 mg/kg of bw, 500 mg/kg of bw and 1000 mg/kg of bw). Feces Salmonella typhi ATCC 19430 was used to assess antidiarrheal potential and hematological, biochemical parameters, and histopathological analyses were carried out for 17 days. The results showed that administration of Salmonella typhi ATCC 19430 in mice produced liver injuries with histological damage, whereas 1000 mg/kg of bw cladode extract reduced the Salmonella typhi ATCC 19430 load of feces earlier as compared to the other groups during 17 days. Hematological parameters, like red blood cells (RBCs) (6.19 ± 1.85 × 106/mm3) and hemoglobin (Hb) (10.06 ± 2.03 g/dL), of negative control group decreased, while white blood cells (WBCs) (13.46 × 106/mm3) increased from reference values. In lipid profile, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (9.0 ± 2.41 mg/dL), high-density lipoprotein (HDL) (6.07 ± 2.45 mg/dL) and total cholesterol (TC) (35.22 ± 8.29 mg/dL) of negative control group decreased, while triglycerides (TG) (168.35 ± 71.75 mg/dL) increased from reference values. Alanine transferase (ALT) (60.30 ± 20.33 IU/L), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) (359.9 ± 100.05 IU/L) and aspartate transferase (AST) (168.77 ± 66.61 IU/L) of negative control group increased from reference values. Urea (27.36 ± 10.54 mmol/L) and creatinine (35.29 ± 12.15 mmol/L) of the negative control group increased. Cefixime also ameliorated injuries due to the administration of Salmonella typhi ATCC 19430. Conclusively, these findings indicated that pure aqueous extract of cladode showed more promising results regarding antidiarrheal potential. Hence, cladode might be used in food and supplement formulations as a functional ingredient.

Therapeutic effects of Stemmoside C against Salmonella enterica serotype typhimurium infected BALB/c mice

Salmonella is a Gram-negative bacterium that causes gastrointestinal diseases in 20 to 40 million people globally. Stemmoside C is a steroidal glycoside isolated from Argel, although its antibacterial and antibiofilm properties have not been studied. The antibacterial activity of Stemmoside C against Salmonella enterica was revealed, where MIC of the compound was 16 μg/mL (0.15 µM). Biofilm-associated Stemmoside C treatment destroyed S. typhi cells and reduced viable S. typhi numbers below detectable levels. When compared to Stemmoside C or Ciprofluxacin-treated mice, infected BALB/c mice had a greater death rate and a larger bacterial blood burden. The protective effects of orally administered Stemmoside C at dose of 25 and 50 mg/kg b.wt. against bacterial infection was associated with reduction in the levels of inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, Il-1β, IL-2, IL-6, MPO, and TNF-α) and elevation of anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10 and IL-12) in serum. Where, Stemmoside C at dose of 50 mg/kg b.wt. regulated the levels almost as normal control group and demonstrated apparently normal intestinal sections. It also resulted in a decrease in the number of viable S. typhi retrieved from feces. Stemmoside C is a promising drug for the treatment or prevention of S. typhimurium infection.

Taming Food-Drug Interaction Risk: Potential Inhibitory Effects of Citrus Juices on Cytochrome Liver Enzymes Can Safeguard the Liver from Overdose Paracetamol-Induced Hepatotoxicity

Paracetamol overdose is the leading cause of drug-induced hepatotoxicity worldwide. Because of N-acetyl cysteine's limited therapeutic efficacy and safety, searching for alternative therapeutic substitutes is necessary. This study investigated four citrus juices: Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck var. Pineapple (pineapple sweet orange), Citrus reticulata Blanco × Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck (Murcott mandarin), Citrus paradisi Macfadyen var. Ruby Red (red grapefruit), and Fortunella margarita Swingle (oval kumquat) to improve the herbal therapy against paracetamol-induced liver toxicity. UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS profiling of the investigated samples resulted in the identification of about 40 metabolites belonging to different phytochemical classes. Phenolic compounds were the most abundant, with the total content ranked from 609.18 to 1093.26 μg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/mL juice. The multivariate data analysis revealed that phloretin 3',5'-di-C-glucoside, narirutin, naringin, hesperidin, 2-O-rhamnosyl-swertisin, fortunellin (acacetin-7-O-neohesperidoside), sinensetin, nobiletin, and tangeretin represented the crucial discriminatory metabolites that segregated the analyzed samples. Nevertheless, the antioxidant activity of the samples was 1135.91-2913.92 μM Trolox eq/mL juice, 718.95-3749.47 μM Trolox eq/mL juice, and 2304.74-4390.32 μM Trolox eq/mL juice, as revealed from 2,2'-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid, ferric-reducing antioxidant power, and oxygen radical absorbance capacity, respectively. The in vivo paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity model in rats was established and assessed by measuring the levels of hepatic enzymes and antioxidant biomarkers. Interestingly, the concomitant administration of citrus juices with a toxic dose of paracetamol effectively recovered the liver injury, as confirmed by normal sections of hepatocytes. This action could be due to the interactions between the major identified metabolites (hesperidin, hesperetin, phloretin 3',5'-di-C-glucoside, fortunellin, poncirin, nobiletin, apigenin-6,8-digalactoside, 6',7'-dihydroxybergamottin, naringenin, and naringin) and cytochrome P450 isoforms (CYP3A4, CYP2E1, and CYP1A2), as revealed from the molecular docking study. The most promising compounds in the three docking processes were hesperidin, fortunellin, poncirin, and naringin. Finally, a desirable food-drug interaction was achieved in our research to overcome paracetamol overdose-induced hepatotoxicity.

Jolkinolide B: A comprehensive review of its physicochemical properties, analytical methods, synthesis and pharmacological activity

Jolkinolide B is a typical ent-abietane-type diterpenoid, which is first found in Euphorbia jolkini. It is one of the most important active components in many toxic Euphorbia plants. In recent years, jolkinolide B has garnered increasing attention due to its high potent and multiple pharmacological activities. In order to better understand the research status of jolkinolide B, relevant information about jolkinolide B was collected from scientific databases (SciFinder Scholar, PubMed, ACS website, Elsevier, Web of Science, Google Scholar, Science Direct, and CNKI). There are few studies on chemical synthesis and biosynthesis of jolkinolide B. In addition, researchers on the activities of jolkinolide B are mostly concentrated at the cellular level, and there is a lack of research on the mechanism. In this review, the possible applications of jolkinolide B were systematically illustrated for the first time, from plant sources, physicochemical properties, analytical methods, synthesis and pharmacological activities. Jolkinolide B exhibits extensive pharmacological properties, including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-osteoporosis, and anti-tuberculosis activities. Pharmacological activities of jolkinolide B were mainly focused on anticancer and anti-inflammatory activities, and the mechanism of action may be related with inhibition of JAK/STAT pathway, NF-κB pathway and PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. In addition, the extraction methods and analytical methods discussed in this review, will facilitate the development of novel herbal products for better healthcare solutions.

Ethanolic extracts of Pakistani euphorbiaceous plants induce apoptosis in breast cancer cells through induction of DNA damage and caspase-dependent pathway

BACKGROUND

Numerous plants of Euphorbiaceae, thespurgefamily are traditionally used for the treatment of different diseases and recent studies also reported anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumor activities of these plants. However, the medicinal potential of several indigenous euphorbiaceous plants of Pakistan is not described yet. Therefore, we intended to evaluate the in vitro anti-breast cancer potential of 10 euphorbiaceous plants of Pakistan.

METHODS

Cytotoxic screening of ethanolic extracts of selected plants was performed by MTT assay. The qualitative phytochemical analysis was performed to find the major groups of chemicals responsible for cytotoxic activity. To determine the genotoxic effect of plant extracts, microscopic analysis was carried out. Flow cytometry and fluorescent microscopic analysis were done to detect apoptosis. To find out the expression analysis of cell cycle and cell death regulatory genes, quantitative real-time polymerase reaction (qRT-PCR) was performed.

RESULTS

Among the 10 tested plants, ethanolic extracts of Croton tiglium (CTL) and Euphorbia royleana (ERA) were found to possess the highest anti-proliferative activity against breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231, MCF-7), with IC₅₀ values 100 and 80 µg/mL respectively. The phytochemical analysis confirmed the presence of phenols, flavonoids, and steroids in both plant extracts, whereas, glycosides and saponins were found only in CTL and ERA, respectively. The cellular aberrations and nuclear morphologies with a distinct DNA laddering pattern substantiated the genotoxic effects. Furthermore, our data showed that CTL and ERA induce cell cycle arrest at the G1/S phase by down-regulating the CDK4 and Cyclin D1 expression followed by caspase-dependent induction of apoptosis in both MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells. However, based on the activation of initiator and executioner caspases, two distinct types of apoptotic pathways are proposed for these plants. The CTL prompted extrinsic while ERA triggered the intrinsic pathways of apoptosis.

CONCLUSION

Our data demonstrate the strong anti-proliferative and caspase-dependent apoptotic potential of CTL and ERA against breast cancer cells. Further studies are suggested to find clinical implications of these plants in breast cancer therapeutic.

Antimicrobial Effects of Aqueous Extract from Calyces of Hibiscus sabdariffa in CD-1 Mice Infected with Multidrug-Resistant Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli and Salmonella Typhimurium

To determinate the antimicrobial effect of chloramphenicol and aqueous extract against multidrug-resistant enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium in CD-1 mice. Aqueous extract was isolated from Hibiscus sabdariffa calyces. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of chloramphenicol and aqueous extract were determined for EHEC and S. Typhimurium. Nine groups of six mice each were formed. Three groups were inoculated orally with 1 × 10⁴ colony-forming units (CFU) of S. Typhimurium, three groups were inoculated with 1 × 10⁴ CFU of EHEC and the remaining three groups were not inoculated. Six hours postinoculation, the mice of some groups were orally administered solutions of aqueous extract (50 mg/mL), chloramphenicol (82 μg/mL), or isotonic saline. The EHEC and S. Typhimurium concentration in all mice feces was determined. For both pathogens, the MIC and MBC values of aqueous extract were 20 y 50 mg/mL, respectively; for chloramphenicol, they were between 17.5 and 82 μg/mL. EHEC and S. Typhimurium were not detected in the feces of mice that were administered aqueous extract on the 2nd and 3rd days posttreatment. Furthermore, these mice recovered from the infection. In contrast, in mice not treated, or treated with chloramphenicol alone, pathogens were isolated from their feces throughout the study, and some mice died. The H. sabdariffa calyx extracts could be an alternative to control multidrug-resistant bacteria in humans and animals.

Isolation, characterization and in vitro anti-salmonellal activity of compounds from stem bark extract of Canarium schweinfurthii

BACKGROUND

Bacteria belonging to the Salmonella genus are major concern for health, as they are widely reported in many cases of food poisoning. The use of antibiotics remains a main stream control strategy for avian salmonellosis as well as typhoid and paratyphoid fevers in humans. Due to the growing awareness about drug resistance and toxicities, the use of antibiotics is being discouraged in many countries whilst advocating potent benign alternatives such as phyto-based medicine. The objective of this work was to isolate, characterise the bioactive compounds of Canarium schweinfurthii; and evaluate their anti-salmonellal activity.

METHODS

The hydro-ethanolic extract of Canarium schweinfurthii was fractionated and tested for their anti-salmonellal activity. The most active fractions (i.e. chloroform and ethyl acetate partition fractions) were then explored for their phytochemical constituents. Fractionation on normal phase silica gel column chromatography and size exclusion chromatography on Sephadex LH-20 led to the isolation of four compounds (maniladiol, scopoletin, ethyl gallate and gallic acid) reported for the first time in Canarium schweinfurthii.

RESULTS

Result indicated that scopoletin and gallic acid had greater activity than the crude extracts and partition fractions. Among the isolated compounds, scopoletin showed the highest inhibitory activity with a MIC of 16 μg/ml against Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Enteritidis.

CONCLUSIONS

The overall results of this study indicates that the hydro-ethanolic extract as well as some of isolated compounds have interesting anti-salmonellal activities that could be further explored for the development of potent therapy for salmonellosis. Furthermore, the study adds credence to the folkloric applications of the plant.

The Role of Silver Nanoparticles in a Treatment Approach for Multidrug-Resistant Salmonella Species Isolates

PURPOSE

The main objective of this study is to investigate the antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) against multidrug-resistant Salmonella isolates recovered from diarrheic  sheep and goats.

METHODS

This study used chemical reduction synthesis of AgNPs to evaluate their antimicrobial effects by estimation of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) for each isolate using the microplate dilution method and tetrazolium salt reduction test to detect the viability percentage. In vivo treatment efficacy was assessed in mice by determining the viable count of Salmonella Enteritidis recovered from feces and by hematologic, biochemical and histopathologic examinations to confirm that use of AgNPs has no toxic or pathologic effects and to evaluate its ability in tissue regeneration following treatment.

RESULTS

All recovered strains were identified as MDR with a prevalence of 4% and 3.6% in sheep and goats, respectively. The results of TEM, DLS, Zeta potential, and FTIR revealed typical characteristics of the synthesized AgNPs. Silver nanoparticles showed antibacterial activity against all recovered strains with MIC of ≤0.02-0.313 μg/mL (mean average 0.085±0.126 μg/mL) and MBC of 0.078-1.250 μg/mL (average 0.508±0.315 μg/mL). In vivo efficacy of AgNPs was observed by a reduction in the number of viable S. Enteritidis recovered from feces in an S. Enteritidis infected mouse model, with complete shedding stopping between treatment days 4 and 6. Hematologic, serum biochemical, and histopathologic analyses proved the ability of AgNPs to suppress inflammatory reaction caused by S. Enteritidis infection.

CONCLUSION

The study proved the effective ability of AgNPs to fight MDR Salmonella spp. in vitro and in vivo without adverse effects.

Plasmodium-Salmonella Coinfection Induces Intense Inflammatory Response, Oxidative Stress, and Liver Damage: A Mice Model Study for Therapeutic Strategy

Impairment of host immune response in malaria favors bacteremia caused by typhoidal or nontyphoidal serovars of Salmonella enterica. Ofloxacin and Artesunate are the drugs that are clinically proven for treating typhoid and malaria, respectively. The study evaluates the host responses upon treatment with antibiotic (Ofloxacin) and antimalarial (Artesunate) in a standardized mice model harboring coinfection. BALB/c mice (18-22 g) were simultaneously coinfected with Plasmodium yoelii nigeriensis (Pyn) and S. enterica serovar Typhimurium (STm) and then treated with Ofloxacin or/and Artesunate from day 4 to day 7. The bacterial burden, liver function enzymes, oxidative stress, m-RNA expression of Toll-like receptors (TLR-2 and TLR-4), Th1/Th2 cytokines, hemeoxygenase-1, and NFкB were assessed. Ofloxacin treatment failed to counter the bacterial proliferation in Pyn-STm coinfected mice. However, upon controlling parasitemia with antimalarial, the efficacy of Ofloxacin could be regained. Elevated bacterial burden with malaria induces the expression of TLR-2 and TLR-4 triggering intense inflammatory response (NFκB, Th1/Th2 cytokines) in coinfected mice. This results in critical liver damage (ALT, AST, and ALP), oxidative stress (lipid peroxidation, total GSH, catalase, and super oxide dismutase), and hemeoxygenase-1 (HO-1). The study concludes that malaria infection aggravates the secondary infection of Salmonella serovars and the control of septicemia is critical in recovery of the coinfected subject.

Antioxidant activity of dichloromethane fraction of Dichrocephala integrifolia in Salmonella typhi-infected rats

OBJECTIVE

Infectious diseases such as typhoid fever lead to the formation of free radicals which can damage the body. Many medicinal plants have antioxidant molecules that neutralize free radicals. The present work evaluated the antioxidant activity and histopathological effects of the dichloromethane fraction of Dichrocephala integrifolia in Salmonella typhi-infected rats.

METHODS

The S. typhi-infected rats concurrently received daily doses of D. integrifolia extract at doses of 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg body weight or ciprofloxacin (5 mg/kg body weight) for 15 days. Body temperature was measured daily during infection and treatment periods. At the end of treatment period, the animals were sacrificed and biological responses including hematological parameters, superoxide dismutase and catalase activities, and glutathione, malondialdehyde and nitric oxide concentrations were evaluated.

RESULTS

The elevated body temperature induced by infection was significantly decreased in animals treated with 25, 50 or 100 mg/kg of the extract. Platelet levels decreased slightly in infected rats, while treatment with the dichloromethane fraction of D. integrifolia significantly increased platelet levels; this response was greater than that elicited by ciprofloxacin. The doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg of the dichloromethane fraction of D. integrifolia notably decreased monocyte and neutrophil values. Activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase and levels of glutathione in the tissues of treated animals were increased significantly (P < 0.01), while malondialdehyde and nitric oxide levels were significantly decreased (P < 0.01), following treatment with the dichloromethane fraction of D. integrifolia.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study show that the dichloromethane fraction of D. integrifolia has protective effects against a series of pathological conditions initiated by oxidation and tissue damage in the course of a S. typhi infection.

Current Challenges and Perspectives for the Use of Aqueous Plant Extracts in the Management of Bacterial Infections: The Case-Study of Salmonella enterica Serovars

Worldwide, foodborne diseases are a growing public health problem. Among the infectious bacteria, non-typhoidal Salmonella enterica serovars (NTS) are the major cause of hospitalization and death, and the emergence and spread of their antibiotic-resistance is becoming a worldwide health issue. This, coupled with the restrictions of antibiotics use in agriculture and animal production, calls for alternative approaches to solve this problem. Plant-derived aqueous extracts compounds could provide novel straightforward approaches to control pathogenic bacteria. This review discusses the antimicrobial activity of aqueous plant extracts against Salmonella serovars, the possible mechanisms of action involved, which components/structures might be responsible for such activity, and the current challenges for the use of these extracts/components in Salmonella infection management and their application perspectives.

Multidrug resistant bacteria are sensitive to Euphorbia prostrata and six others Cameroonian medicinal plants extracts

Background

Multidrug resistant (MDR) bacteria are responsible for therapeutic failure and there is an urgent need for novels compounds efficient on them.

Methods

Eleven methanol extracts from seven Cameroonian medicinal plants were tested for their antibacterial activity using broth micro-dilution method against 36 MDR bacterial strains including Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes, Enterobacter cloacae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Providencia stuartii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus.

Results

Euphorbia prostrata extract was found active against all the 36 tested bacteria including Gram-negative phenotypes over-expressing efflux pumps such as P. aeruginosa PA124, E. aerogenes CM64 and E. coli AG102. E. prostrata had minimal inhibitory concentrations values between 128 and 256 µg/mL on 55.55% of the studied microorganisms. Other plants extract displayed selective antibacterial activity.

Conclusions

Results obtained in this study highlight the antibacterial potential of the tested plants and the possible use of E. prostrata to combat bacterial infections including MDR phenotypes.