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Affiliation(s)
- A.L. Waldroup
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, B114 Animal Science Building, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701, USA
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Møretrø T, Langsrud S. Residential Bacteria on Surfaces in the Food Industry and Their Implications for Food Safety and Quality. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2017; 16:1022-1041. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Revised: 06/03/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Trond Møretrø
- Nofima, The Norwegian Inst. of Food; Fishery and Aquaculture Research; N-1430 Ås Norway
| | - Solveig Langsrud
- Nofima, The Norwegian Inst. of Food; Fishery and Aquaculture Research; N-1430 Ås Norway
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Cleto S, Matos S, Kluskens L, Vieira MJ. Characterization of contaminants from a sanitized milk processing plant. PLoS One 2012; 7:e40189. [PMID: 22761957 PMCID: PMC3386184 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0040189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2012] [Accepted: 06/01/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Milk processing lines offer a wide variety of microenvironments where a diversity of microorganisms can proliferate. We sampled crevices and junctions where, due to deficient reach by typical sanitizing procedures, bacteria can survive and establish biofilms. The sampling sites were the holding cell, cold storage tank, pasteurizer and storage tank - transfer pump junction. The culturable bacteria that were isolated after the sanitation procedure were predominantly Pseudomonas spp., Serratia spp, Staphylococcus sciuri and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. We assayed several phenotypic characteristics such as the ability to secrete enzymes and siderophores, as well as the capacity of the strains to form biofilms that might contribute to their survival in a mixed species environment. The Pseudomonas spp. isolates were found to either produce proteases or lecithinases at high levels. Interestingly, protease production showed an inverse correlation with siderophore production. Furthermore, all of the Serratia spp. isolates were strong biofilm formers and spoilage enzymes producers. The organisms identified were not mere contaminants, but also producers of proteins with the potential to lower the quality and shelf-life of milk. In addition, we found that a considerable number of the Serratia and Pseudomonas spp. isolated from the pasteurizer were capable of secreting compounds with antimicrobial properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Cleto
- Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Centre of Biological Engineering, Universidade do Minho, Campus de Gualtar, Braga, Portugal.
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Reij MW, Den Aantrekker ED. Recontamination as a source of pathogens in processed foods. Int J Food Microbiol 2004; 91:1-11. [PMID: 14967555 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-1605(03)00295-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2003] [Accepted: 05/23/2003] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Food products that have been submitted to an adequate heat-treatment during processing are free of vegetative pathogens and, depending on the treatments, of sporeformers and are generally regarded as safe. Processed products such as pâté, ice cream, infant formulae and others have nevertheless been responsible for food-borne illnesses. Thorough epidemiological investigations of several of these outbreaks have demonstrated that the presence of vegetative pathogens such as Salmonella spp. or Listeria monocytogenes in the consumed products was frequently due to post-process recontamination. The majority of studies on pathogens in foods are devoted to investigations on their presence in raw materials or on their growth and behaviour in the finished products. Reference to recontamination is, however, only made in relatively few publications and very little is published on the sources and routes of these pathogens into products after the final lethal processing step. The investigation of an outbreak, including epidemiological studies and typing of strains, is very useful to trace the origin and source of the hazard. Published data demonstrate that the presence of pathogens in the vicinity of unprotected product in processing lines represents a significant risk of recontamination. Microbiological Risk Assessment studies can be conducted as part of governmental activities determining appropriate protection levels for populations. Although recontamination has been identified as a relevant cause of food incidences, it is often not considered in such studies. This paper advocates that an effort should be made to develop our knowledge and information on recontamination further and start using it systematically in the exposure assessment part of Microbiological Risk Assessment studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- M W Reij
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 8129, NL-6700 EV Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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Hazariwala A, Sanders Q, Hudson CR, Hofacre C, Thayer SG, Maurer JJ. Distribution of staphylococcal enterotoxin genes among Staphylococcus aureus isolates from poultry and humans with invasive staphylococcal disease. Avian Dis 2002; 46:132-6. [PMID: 11922324 DOI: 10.1637/0005-2086(2002)046[0132:dosega]2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Food poisoning by Staphylococcus aureus affects hundreds of thousands of people each year. Staphylococcus aureus also causes invasive diseases such as arthritis (in poultry) and septicemia (in poultry and humans). Foodborne disease is caused by the ingestion of a staphylococcal enterotoxin (SE). Enterotoxin has also been associated with other S. aureus illnesses in humans and domestic animals. In this study, polymerase chain reaction was used to detect the staphylococcal enterotoxin genes, SEA, SEB, SEC, SED, and SEE, in S. aureus isolates associated with invasive disease in poultry and humans. In the 34 poultry isolates, only one isolate was found to contain a SE gene, sec. In the 41 human isolates, over 51% tested positive for an SE gene with 12.2% positive for the gene for SEA, 2.4% for SEB, 22% for SEC, 24.4% for SED, and 0 for SEE. The disparity between the rates for SE gene(s) in poultry and human isolates suggests a lesser role for the enterotoxins in invasive poultry disease than in human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amita Hazariwala
- Department of Avian Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens 30602, USA
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Arnold JW, Silvers S. Comparison of poultry processing equipment surfaces for susceptibility to bacterial attachment and biofilm formation. Poult Sci 2000; 79:1215-21. [PMID: 10947195 DOI: 10.1093/ps/79.8.1215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
During processing of poultry meat products, broiler carcasses come in contact with many solid surfaces. Bacteria from the carcasses can attach to wet equipment surfaces, form biofilms, and provide a source of cross-contamination for subsequent carcasses. In this study an array of common equipment surface materials was compared for susceptibility to bacterial attachment and biofilms. To model mixed microbial populations relevant to poultry processing, samples were taken directly from the processing line and exposed to the surface materials. Whole carcasses were rinsed with phosphate-buffered saline (100 mL), and the rinse was diluted in nutrient broth. Absorbance values (412 nm) of the suspensions at varying dilutions containing test surfaces were compared hourly with controls without test surfaces. The kinetics of bacterial attachment and biofilm formation on test surfaces were determined under the influence of pH, time, and bacterial cell density, and the elemental composition of the surface materials was determined by energy-dispersive X-ray analysis. Our results showed that surfaces vary in affinity for bacterial attachment and biofilm formation. Analysis by spectrophotometry and scanning electron microscopy confirmed that attachment to stainless steel, polyethylene, and belting was not significantly different from controls. Attachment to picker-finger rubber was significantly less than attachment to stainless steel and the other surfaces. In fact, picker-finger rubber inhibits bacterial contamination. An increased understanding of bacterial attachment and biofilm formation will assist in the development of interventions to counteract these processes and, thereby, enhance plant sanitation and pathogen control.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Arnold
- US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Russell Research Center, Athens, Georgia 30604, USA.
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Pereira MS, Siqueira-Júnior JP. Antimicrobial drug resistance in Staphylococcus aureus isolated from cattle in Brazil. Lett Appl Microbiol 1995; 20:391-5. [PMID: 7786507 DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765x.1995.tb01328.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Isolates of Staphylococcus aureus obtained from apparently healthy cattle in the State of Paraiba, Brazil were characterized in relation to resistance to 21 antimicrobial agents. Among the 46 isolates obtained, resistance to penicillin was most frequent, followed by resistance to cadmium, streptomycin, arsenate, tetracycline, mercury, erythromycin and kanamycin/neomycin. All isolates were susceptible to fusidic acid, ethidium bromide, cetrimide, chloramphenicol, benzalkonium chloride, doxycycline, gentamicin, methicillin, minocycline, novobiocin, rifamycin, tylosin and vancomycin. Only six isolates were susceptible to all the drugs tested. With respect to the antibiotics, multi-resistant isolates were uncommon. These results are probably a consequence of the peculiarities of local drug usage pressures. In relation to metal ions, resistance to mercury was rare while resistance to arsenate was relatively frequent, which contrasts with the situation for human Staph. aureus strains. After treatment with ethidium bromide, elimination of resistance to penicillin, tetracycline, streptomycin, erythromycin and cadmium was observed, which was consistent with the genetic determinants being plasmid-borne.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Pereira
- Departamento de Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal da Paraiba, Joao Pessoa(Pb), Brazil
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Mead GC, Hudson WR, Hinton MH. Microbiological survey of five poultry processing plants in the UK. Br Poult Sci 1993; 34:497-503. [PMID: 8358637 DOI: 10.1080/00071669308417605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
1. Neck skin samples were taken from chickens and turkeys at all the main stages of processing to monitor changes in total viable count (TVC) and counts of coliforms and pseudomonads. 2. Processing reduced TVC by up to 100-fold. Geometric mean counts after packaging were log10 4.4 to 5.3 CFU/g whilst corresponding counts of coliforms were 2.7 to 3.8 CFU/g. 3. Increases in mean TVC or coliforms as a result of either defeathering or evisceration did not exceed 0.6 log. 4. Pseudomonads represented only a minor fraction of the initial microflora of the bird and were often reduced by scalding to a figure which could not be detected by direct plating of samples; however, subsequent contamination resulted in means between log10 2.9 and 4.0 CFU/g for packaged carcases. 5. Although Staphylococcus aureus was readily isolated from defeathering equipment, mean counts from defeathered carcases were always below log10 3.0 CFU/g.
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Affiliation(s)
- G C Mead
- School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Avon
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THAYER D, BOYD G. Gamma Ray Processing to Destroy Staphylococcus aureus in Mechanically Deboned Chicken Meat. J Food Sci 1992. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1992.tb14308.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Mead GC, Dodd CE. Incidence, origin and significance of staphylococci on processed poultry. SOCIETY FOR APPLIED BACTERIOLOGY SYMPOSIUM SERIES 1990; 19:81S-91S. [PMID: 2119068 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1990.tb01800.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G C Mead
- Institute of Food Research, Bristol Laboratory, Langford, UK
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Devriese LA. Staphylococci in healthy and diseased animals. SOCIETY FOR APPLIED BACTERIOLOGY SYMPOSIUM SERIES 1990; 19:71S-80S. [PMID: 2119067 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1990.tb01799.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- L A Devriese
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Gent, Belgium
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Nychas GJ, Arkoudelos JS. Staphylococci: their role in fermented sausages. SOCIETY FOR APPLIED BACTERIOLOGY SYMPOSIUM SERIES 1990; 19:167S-188S. [PMID: 2119063 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1990.tb01806.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G J Nychas
- Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Technology of Agricultural Products, Athens, Greece
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Mead GC, Norris AP, Bratchell N. Differentiation of Staphylococcus aureus from freshly slaughtered poultry and strains 'endemic' to processing plants by biochemical and physiological tests. THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BACTERIOLOGY 1989; 66:153-9. [PMID: 2708170 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1989.tb02464.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
A comparison was made of 27 'endemic' strains of Staphylococcus aureus and 35 strains from freshly slaughtered birds, isolated at five commercial slaughterhouses processing chickens or turkeys. Of 112 biochemical and physiological tests used, 74 gave results which differed among the strains. Cluster analysis revealed several distinct groupings which were influenced by strain type, processing plant and bird origin; these included a single group at the 72% level of similarity containing most of the 'endemic' strains. In comparison with strains from freshly slaughtered birds, a higher proportion of 'endemic' strains produced fibrinolysin, alpha-glucosidase and urease and were beta-haemolytic on sheep-blood agar. The 'endemic' type also showed a greater tendency to coagulate human but not bovine plasma, and to produce mucoid growth and clumping. The last two properties, relevant to colonization of processing equipment, were less evident in heart infusion broth than in richer media or process water collected during defeathering of the birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- G C Mead
- AFRC Institute of Food Research-Bristol Laboratory, Langford, UK
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Cherrington CA, Board R, Hinton M. Persistence of Escherichia coli in a poultry processing plant. Lett Appl Microbiol 1988. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765x.1988.tb01311.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Dodd C, Mead G, Waites W. Detection of the site of contamination by Staphylococcus aureus within the defeathering machinery of a poultry processing plant. Lett Appl Microbiol 1988. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765x.1988.tb01253.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Dodd CE, Chaffey BJ, Waites WM. Plasmid profiles as indicators of the source of contamination of Staphylococcus aureus endemic within poultry processing plants. Appl Environ Microbiol 1988; 54:1541-9. [PMID: 3261960 PMCID: PMC202693 DOI: 10.1128/aem.54.6.1541-1549.1988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
A total of 530 strains of Staphylococcus aureus were isolated from the defeathering machinery of a chicken processing plant and from neck skin samples of carcasses at different stages of processing in two visits 4 weeks apart. Eleven different plasmid profiles were detected in the isolates, eight being common to both visits. The plasmid profiles of the strains forming the majority of the population on the freshly slaughtered birds were rarely present in the strains isolated from the pluckers (except at the entry to the first plucker) and were present in only a small proportion of the strains isolated from carcasses after plucking. However, the profiles from the strains isolated from the pluckers on both visits were different from those forming the majority of the population on the incoming birds but formed the major part of the carcass flora after plucking, suggesting that such strains were endemic. These strains were found as a small proportion of the isolates made from the incoming birds, suggesting that this was the route by which the endemic strains were introduced into the plant. Such endemic strains exhibited a clumping growth, even in liquid shake culture, which may have made it easier for them to become established on the pluckers and to resist cleaning and disinfection. This clumping phenotype was correlated with the presence of a 7.5-megadalton plasmid.
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Affiliation(s)
- C E Dodd
- Department of Applied Biochemistry and Food Science, Faculty of Agricultural Science, University of Nottingham, Loughborough, Leicestershire, United Kingdom
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Purdy J, Dodd C, Fowler D, Waites W. Increase in microbial contamination of defeathering machinery in a poultry processing plant after changes in the method of processing. Lett Appl Microbiol 1988. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765x.1988.tb01209.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Bolton K, Dodd C, Mead G, Waites W. Chlorine resistance of strains of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from poultry processing plants. Lett Appl Microbiol 1988. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765x.1988.tb01208.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Dodd CE, Adams BW, Mead GC, Waites WM. Use of plasmid profiles to detect changes in strains of Staphylococcus aureus during poultry processing. THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BACTERIOLOGY 1987; 63:417-25. [PMID: 3440764 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1987.tb04863.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The plasmid profiles of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated at different stages in three poultry processing plants have been examined. Changes in profiles were seen in two plants after the plucking stage and the appearance of these new profiles correlated with the presence of an endemic strain, as suggested previously by increases in bacterial counts and changes in biotypes at the same stage. A third plant in which such changes did not occur showed no change in profiles. Plasmid profiles are therefore a rapid and sensitive method for distinguishing endemic strains within a plant from the flora of the incoming birds. Certain profiles also appeared to correspond with particular biotypes and certain phage types.
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Affiliation(s)
- C E Dodd
- Department of Applied Biochemistry and Food Science, Faculty of Agricultural Science, University of Nottingham, Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK
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Dodd C, Adams B, Mead G, Waites W. Use of plasmid profiles to detect changes in strains of Staphylococcus aureus during poultry processing. J Appl Microbiol 1987. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1987.tb05168.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Abstract
The development of the poultry industry and the consumption of poultry meat is traced over the past quarter of a century and related to the increased incidence of food poisoning in man. Factors affecting the spread of the main poultry pathogens which are of human significance are discussed. The pathogens considered are salmonella, campylobacter, staphylococci and clostridia. Various preventative measures are considered including rearing procedures for poultry, decontamination methods and education of the public. It is concluded that one of the most effective measures is irradiation of poultry and poultry products. The difficulties of introducing this control measure are recognised. It is concluded that more effective application of existing control methods would greatly reduce the hazards to public health.
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MEAD GC, ADAMS BW. Chlorine resistance of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from turkeys and turkey products. Lett Appl Microbiol 1986. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765x.1986.tb01566.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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