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Williams RAJ, Criollo Valencia HA, López Márquez I, González González F, Llorente F, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ, Busquets N, Mateo Barrientos M, Ortiz-Díez G, Ayllón Santiago T. West Nile Virus Seroprevalence in Wild Birds and Equines in Madrid Province, Spain. Vet Sci 2024; 11:259. [PMID: 38922006 PMCID: PMC11209238 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci11060259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a re-emerging flavivirus, primarily circulating among avian hosts and mosquito vectors, causing periodic outbreaks in humans and horses, often leading to neuroinvasive disease and mortality. Spain has reported several outbreaks, most notably in 2020 with seventy-seven human cases and eight fatalities. WNV has been serologically detected in horses in the Community of Madrid, but to our knowledge, it has never been reported from wild birds in this region. To estimate the seroprevalence of WNV in wild birds and horses in the Community of Madrid, 159 wild birds at a wildlife rescue center and 25 privately owned equines were sampled. Serum from thirteen birds (8.2%) and one equine (4.0%) tested positive with a WNV competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) designed for WNV antibody detection but sensitive to cross-reacting antibodies to other flaviviruses. Virus-neutralization test (VNT) confirmed WNV antibodies in four bird samples (2.5%), and antibodies to undetermined flavivirus in four additional samples. One equine sample (4.0%) tested positive for WNV by VNT, although this horse previously resided in a WN-endemic area. ELISA-positive birds included both migratory and resident species, juveniles and adults. Two seropositive juvenile birds suggest local flavivirus transmission within the Community of Madrid, while WNV seropositive adult birds may have been infected outside Madrid. The potential circulation of flaviviruses, including WNV, in birds in the Madrid Community raises concerns, although further surveillance of mosquitoes, wild birds, and horses in Madrid is necessary to establish the extent of transmission and the principal species involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard A. J. Williams
- Department of Genetics, Physiology and Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, Complutense University of Madrid, José Antonio Nováis, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Irene López Márquez
- Group for the Rehabilitation of Native Fauna and their Habitat—GREFA, 28220 Madrid, Spain; (I.L.M.); (F.G.G.)
| | - Fernando González González
- Group for the Rehabilitation of Native Fauna and their Habitat—GREFA, 28220 Madrid, Spain; (I.L.M.); (F.G.G.)
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Llorente
- Animal Health Research Center (CISA-INIA), CSIC, 28130 Valdeolmos, Spain; (F.L.)
| | | | - Núria Busquets
- IRTA, Animal Health Program, Animal Health Research Center (CReSA), Campus of the Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
- Mixed Research Unit IRTA-UAB in Animal Health, Animal Health Research Center (CReSA), Campus of the Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | - Marta Mateo Barrientos
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Gustavo Ortiz-Díez
- Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Tania Ayllón Santiago
- Department of Genetics, Physiology and Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, Complutense University of Madrid, José Antonio Nováis, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Alfonso X El Sabio University, 28691 Madrid, Spain;
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Aguilera-Sepúlveda P, Cano-Gómez C, Villalba R, Borges V, Agüero M, Bravo-Barriga D, Frontera E, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ, Fernández-Pinero J. The key role of Spain in the traffic of West Nile virus lineage 1 strains between Europe and Africa. Infect Dis (Lond) 2024:1-16. [PMID: 38836293 DOI: 10.1080/23744235.2024.2348633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND West Nile Virus (WNV) is a zoonotic arbovirus worldwide spread. Seasonal WNV outbreaks occur in the Mediterranean basin since the late 1990's with ever-increasing incidence. In Southern Spain WNV is endemic, as disease foci - caused by WNV lineage 1 (WNV-L1) strains - occur every year. On the contrary, WNV-L2 is the dominant lineage in Europe, so most European WNV sequences available belong to this lineage, WNV-L1 sequences being still scarce. METHODS To fill this gap, this study reports the genetic characterisation of 27 newly described WNV-L1 strains, involved in outbreaks affecting wild birds and horses during the last decade in South-Western Spain. RESULTS All strains except one belong to the Western Mediterranean-1 sub-cluster (WMed-1), related phylogenetically to Italian, French, Portuguese, Moroccan and, remarkably, Senegalese strains. This sub-cluster persisted, spread and evolved into three distinguishable WMed-1 phylogenetic groups that co-circulated, notably, in the same province (Cádiz). They displayed different behaviours: from long-term persistence and rapid spread to neighbouring regions within Spain, to long-distance spread to different countries, including transcontinental spread to Africa. Among the different introductions of WNV in Spain revealed in this study, some of them succeeded to get established, some extinguished from the territory shortly afterwards. Furthermore, Spain's southernmost province, Cádiz, constitutes a hotspot for virus incursion. CONCLUSION Southern Spain seems a likely scenario for emergence of exotic pathogens of African origin. Therefore, circulation of diverse WNV-L1 variants in Spain prompts for an extensive surveillance under a One Health approach.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cristina Cano-Gómez
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA), CSIC, Valdeolmos, Spain
| | - Rubén Villalba
- Laboratorio Central de Veterinaria (LCV), Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAPA), Algete, Spain
| | - Vítor Borges
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Montserrat Agüero
- Laboratorio Central de Veterinaria (LCV), Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAPA), Algete, Spain
| | - Daniel Bravo-Barriga
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain
| | - Eva Frontera
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain
| | - Miguel Ángel Jiménez-Clavero
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA), CSIC, Valdeolmos, Spain
- CIBER of Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
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3
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Ferraguti M, Magallanes S, Mora-Rubio C, Bravo-Barriga D, Marzal A, Hernandez-Caballero I, Aguilera-Sepúlveda P, Llorente F, Pérez-Ramírez E, Guerrero-Carvajal F, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ, Frontera E, Ortiz JA, de Lope F. Implications of migratory and exotic birds and the mosquito community on West Nile virus transmission. Infect Dis (Lond) 2024; 56:206-219. [PMID: 38160682 DOI: 10.1080/23744235.2023.2288614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vector-borne diseases like West Nile virus (WNV) pose a global health challenge, with rising incidence and distribution. Culex mosquitoes are crucial WNV vectors. Avian species composition and bird community diversity, along with vector communities, influence WNV transmission patterns. However, limited knowledge exists on their impact in southwestern Spain, an area with active WNV circulation in wild birds, mosquitoes, and humans. METHODS To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study investigating the contributions of migratory and exotic bird species to WNV transmission and the influence of mosquito community composition. RESULTS Analysing 1194 serum samples from 44 avian species, we detected WNV antibodies in 32 samples from 11 species, four for the first time in Europe. Migratory birds had higher WNV exposure likelihood than native and exotic species, and higher phylogenetic diversity in bird communities correlated with lower exposure rates. Moreover, in 5859 female mosquitoes belonging to 12 species, we identified WNV competent vectors like Cx. pipiens s.l. and the Univittatus subgroup. Birds with WNV antibodies were positively associated with competent vector abundance, but negatively with overall mosquito species richness. CONCLUSIONS These findings highlight the complex interactions between bird species, their phylogenetics, and mosquito vectors in WNV transmission. Understanding these dynamics will help to implement effective disease control strategies in southwestern Spain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Ferraguti
- Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD), CSIC, Departamento de Biología de la Conservación y Cambio Global, Seville, Spain
- Universidad de Extremadura, Facultad de Biología, Departamento de Anatomía, Biología Celular y Zoología, Badajoz, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - Sergio Magallanes
- Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD), CSIC, Departamento de Biología de la Conservación y Cambio Global, Seville, Spain
- Universidad de Extremadura, Facultad de Biología, Departamento de Anatomía, Biología Celular y Zoología, Badajoz, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlos Mora-Rubio
- Universidad de Extremadura, Facultad de Biología, Departamento de Anatomía, Biología Celular y Zoología, Badajoz, Spain
| | - Daniel Bravo-Barriga
- Universidad de Córdoba, Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Zoonosis y Sanidad Animal (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Córdoba, Spain
- Universidad de Extremadura, Facultad de Veterinaria, Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Parasitología, Cáceres, Spain
| | - Alfonso Marzal
- Universidad de Extremadura, Facultad de Biología, Departamento de Anatomía, Biología Celular y Zoología, Badajoz, Spain
- Universidad Nacional de San Martín, Grupo de Investigaciones en Fauna Silvestre, Tarapoto, Perú
| | - Irene Hernandez-Caballero
- Universidad de Extremadura, Facultad de Biología, Departamento de Anatomía, Biología Celular y Zoología, Badajoz, Spain
| | | | - Francisco Llorente
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA), CSIC, Valdeolmos, Spain
| | - Elisa Pérez-Ramírez
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA), CSIC, Valdeolmos, Spain
| | | | - Miguel Ángel Jiménez-Clavero
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA), CSIC, Valdeolmos, Spain
| | - Eva Frontera
- Universidad Nacional de San Martín, Grupo de Investigaciones en Fauna Silvestre, Tarapoto, Perú
| | | | - Florentino de Lope
- Universidad de Extremadura, Facultad de Biología, Departamento de Anatomía, Biología Celular y Zoología, Badajoz, Spain
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4
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Garrigós M, Garrido M, Panisse G, Veiga J, Martínez-de la Puente J. Interactions between West Nile Virus and the Microbiota of Culex pipiens Vectors: A Literature Review. Pathogens 2023; 12:1287. [PMID: 38003752 PMCID: PMC10675824 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12111287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Revised: 10/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The flavivirus West Nile virus (WNV) naturally circulates between mosquitoes and birds, potentially affecting humans and horses. Different species of mosquitoes play a role as vectors of WNV, with those of the Culex pipiens complex being particularly crucial for its circulation. Different biotic and abiotic factors determine the capacity of mosquitoes for pathogen transmission, with the mosquito gut microbiota being recognized as an important one. Here, we review the published studies on the interactions between the microbiota of the Culex pipiens complex and WNV infections in mosquitoes. Most articles published so far studied the interactions between bacteria of the genus Wolbachia and WNV infections, obtaining variable results regarding the directionality of this relationship. In contrast, only a few studies investigate the role of the whole microbiome or other bacterial taxa in WNV infections. These studies suggest that bacteria of the genera Serratia and Enterobacter may enhance WNV development. Thus, due to the relevance of WNV in human and animal health and the important role of mosquitoes of the Cx. pipiens complex in its transmission, more research is needed to unravel the role of mosquito microbiota and those factors affecting this microbiota on pathogen epidemiology. In this respect, we finally propose future lines of research lines on this topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Garrigós
- Department of Parasitology, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (M.G.); (J.V.); (J.M.-d.l.P.)
| | - Mario Garrido
- Department of Parasitology, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (M.G.); (J.V.); (J.M.-d.l.P.)
| | - Guillermo Panisse
- CEPAVE—Centro de Estudios Parasitológicos y de Vectores CONICET-UNLP, La Plata 1900, Argentina;
| | - Jesús Veiga
- Department of Parasitology, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (M.G.); (J.V.); (J.M.-d.l.P.)
| | - Josué Martínez-de la Puente
- Department of Parasitology, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (M.G.); (J.V.); (J.M.-d.l.P.)
- CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), 28029 Madrid, Spain
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Casades-Martí L, Holgado-Martín R, Aguilera-Sepúlveda P, Llorente F, Pérez-Ramírez E, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ, Ruiz-Fons F. Risk Factors for Exposure of Wild Birds to West Nile Virus in A Gradient of Wildlife-Livestock Interaction. Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12010083. [PMID: 36678431 PMCID: PMC9864363 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12010083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 12/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) transmission rate is shaped by the interaction between virus reservoirs and vectors, which may be maximized in farm environments. Based on this hypothesis, we screened for WNV in wild birds in three scenarios with decreasing gradient of interaction with horses: (i) the farm (A1); (ii) the neighborhood (A2); and (iii) a wild area (A3). We captured wild birds and analyzed their sera for WNV antibodies by blocking ELISA and micro-virus neutralization test. Flavivirus infections were tested with generic and specific PCR protocols. We parameterized linear mixed models with predictors (bird abundance and diversity, vector abundance, vector host abundance, and weather quantities) to identify Flavivirus spp. and WNV exposure risk factors. We detected a low rate of Flavivirus infections by PCR (0.8%) and 6.9% of the birds were seropositive by ELISA. Exposure to Flavivirus spp. was higher in A1 (9%) than in A2 and A3 (5.6% and 5.8%, respectively). Bird diversity was the most relevant predictor of exposure risk and passerines dominated the on-farm bird community. Our results suggest that measures deterring the use of the farm by passerines should be implemented because the environmental favorability of continental Mediterranean environments for WNV is increasing and more outbreaks are expected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laia Casades-Martí
- Health & Biotechnology (SaBio) Group, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos (IREC), CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, 13005 Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Rocío Holgado-Martín
- Health & Biotechnology (SaBio) Group, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos (IREC), CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, 13005 Ciudad Real, Spain
| | | | - Francisco Llorente
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA), INIA-CSIC, 28130 Valdeolmos, Spain
| | - Elisa Pérez-Ramírez
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA), INIA-CSIC, 28130 Valdeolmos, Spain
| | - Miguel Ángel Jiménez-Clavero
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA), INIA-CSIC, 28130 Valdeolmos, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Ruiz-Fons
- Health & Biotechnology (SaBio) Group, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos (IREC), CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, 13005 Ciudad Real, Spain
- CIBERINFEC—CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence:
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6
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García-Bocanegra I, Franco JJ, León CI, Barbero-Moyano J, García-Miña MV, Fernández-Molera V, Gómez MB, Cano-Terriza D, Gonzálvez M. High exposure of West Nile virus in equid and wild bird populations in Spain following the epidemic outbreak in 2020. Transbound Emerg Dis 2022; 69:3624-3636. [PMID: 36222172 PMCID: PMC10092718 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the circulation and risk factors associated with West Nile virus (WNV) exposure in equine and wild bird populations following the largest epidemic outbreak ever reported in Spain. A total of 305 equids and 171 wild birds were sampled between November 2020 and June 2021. IgG antibodies against flaviviruses were detected by blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (bELISA) in 44.9% (109/243) and 87.1% (54/62) of unvaccinated and vaccinated equids, respectively. The individual seroprevalence in unvaccinated individuals (calculated on animals seropositive by both bELISA and virus microneutralization test [VNT]) was 38.3% (95%CI: 33.1-43.4). No IgM antibodies were detected in animals tested (0/243; 0.0%; 95%CI: 0.0-1.5) by capture-ELISA. The main risk factors associated with WNV exposure in equids were age (adult and geriatric), breed (crossbred) and the absence of a disinsection programme on the facilities. In wild birds, IgG antibodies against flaviviruses were found in 32.7% (56/171; 95%CI: 26.8-38.6) using bELISA, giving an individual WNV seroprevalence of 19.3% (95%CI: 14.3-24.3) after VNT. Seropositivity was found in 37.8% of the 37 species analysed. Species group (raptors), age (>1-year old) and size (large) were the main risk factors related to WNV seropositivity in wild birds. Our results indicate high exposure and widespread distribution of WNV in equid and wild bird populations in Spain after the epidemic outbreak in 2020. The present study highlights the need to continue and improve active surveillance programmes for the detection of WNV in Spain, particularly in those areas at greatest risk of virus circulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio García-Bocanegra
- Department of Animal Health, Animal Health and Zoonosis Research Group (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis and Emerging Diseases (ENZOEM), University of Cordoba, Cordoba, Spain.,CIBERINFEC, ISCIII - CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan J Franco
- Immunology and Applied Genetics, S.A. (Eurofins-Ingenasa), Madrid, Spain
| | - Clara I León
- Agencia de Medio Ambiente y Agua de Andalucía (AMAYA), Junta de Andalucía, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Jesús Barbero-Moyano
- Department of Animal Health, Animal Health and Zoonosis Research Group (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis and Emerging Diseases (ENZOEM), University of Cordoba, Cordoba, Spain
| | - María V García-Miña
- Consejería de Agricultura, Pesca, Agua y Desarrollo Rural, Junta de Andalucía, Sevilla, Spain
| | | | - María B Gómez
- Laboratorio Central de Veterinaria (LCV), Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación, Algete, Madrid, Spain
| | - David Cano-Terriza
- Department of Animal Health, Animal Health and Zoonosis Research Group (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis and Emerging Diseases (ENZOEM), University of Cordoba, Cordoba, Spain.,CIBERINFEC, ISCIII - CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Moisés Gonzálvez
- Department of Animal Health, Animal Health and Zoonosis Research Group (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis and Emerging Diseases (ENZOEM), University of Cordoba, Cordoba, Spain.,Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Regional Campus of International Excellence "Campus Mare Nostrum", University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
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7
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Figuerola J, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ, Ruíz-López MJ, Llorente F, Ruiz S, Hoefer A, Aguilera-Sepúlveda P, Peñuela JJ, García-Ruiz O, Herrero L, Soriguer RC, Delgado RF, Sánchez-Seco MP, la Puente JMD, Vázquez A. A One Health view of the West Nile virus outbreak in Andalusia (Spain) in 2020. Emerg Microbes Infect 2022; 11:2570-2578. [PMID: 36214518 PMCID: PMC9621199 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2022.2134055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Reports of West Nile virus (WNV) associated disease in humans were scarce in Spain until summer 2020, when 77 cases were reported, eight fatal. Most cases occurred next to the Guadalquivir River in the Sevillian villages of Puebla del Río and Coria del Río. Detection of WNV disease in humans was preceded by a large increase in the abundance of Culex perexiguus in the neighbourhood of the villages where most human cases occurred. The first WNV infected mosquitoes were captured approximately one month before the detection of the first human cases. Overall, 33 positive pools of Cx. perexiguus and one pool of Culex pipiens were found. Serology of wild birds confirmed WNV circulation inside the affected villages, that transmission to humans also occurred in urban settings and suggests that virus circulation was geographically more widespread than disease cases in humans or horses may indicate. A high prevalence of antibodies was detected in blackbirds (Turdus merula) suggesting that this species played an important role in the amplification of WNV in urban areas. Culex perexiguus was the main vector of WNV among birds in natural and agricultural areas, while its role in urban areas needs to be investigated in more detail. Culex pipiens may have played some role as bridge vector of WNV between birds and humans once the enzootic transmission cycle driven by Cx. perexiguus occurred inside the villages. Surveillance of virus in mosquitoes has the potential to detect WNV well in advance of the first human cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordi Figuerola
- Estación Biológica de Doñana - CSIC, Avda. Américo Vespucio 26, 41092 Sevilla, Spain.,CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Publica (CIBERESP), Spain
| | - Miguel Ángel Jiménez-Clavero
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA), Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA-CSIC), 28130, Valdeolmos, Spain.,CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Publica (CIBERESP), Spain
| | - María José Ruíz-López
- Estación Biológica de Doñana - CSIC, Avda. Américo Vespucio 26, 41092 Sevilla, Spain.,CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Publica (CIBERESP), Spain
| | - Francisco Llorente
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA), Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA-CSIC), 28130, Valdeolmos, Spain
| | - Santiago Ruiz
- Servicio de Control de Mosquitos de la Diputación Provincial de Huelva, Ctra. Hospital Infanta Elena s/n, 21007 Huelva, Spain.,CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Publica (CIBERESP), Spain
| | - Andreas Hoefer
- Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28222 Majadahonda, Spain.,European Public Health Microbiology Training Programme (EUPHEM), European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Pilar Aguilera-Sepúlveda
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA), Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA-CSIC), 28130, Valdeolmos, Spain
| | | | - Olaya García-Ruiz
- Estación Biológica de Doñana - CSIC, Avda. Américo Vespucio 26, 41092 Sevilla, Spain.,CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Publica (CIBERESP), Spain
| | - Laura Herrero
- Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28222 Majadahonda, Spain
| | - Ramón C Soriguer
- Estación Biológica de Doñana - CSIC, Avda. Américo Vespucio 26, 41092 Sevilla, Spain.,CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Publica (CIBERESP), Spain
| | - Raúl Fernández Delgado
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA), Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA-CSIC), 28130, Valdeolmos, Spain
| | - Mari Paz Sánchez-Seco
- Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28222 Majadahonda, Spain.,CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC), Spain
| | - Josué Martínez-de la Puente
- Departamento de Parasitología, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain.,CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Publica (CIBERESP), Spain
| | - Ana Vázquez
- Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28222 Majadahonda, Spain.,CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Publica (CIBERESP), Spain
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8
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Ferraguti M, Martínez-de la Puente J, Jiménez–Clavero MÁ, Llorente F, Roiz D, Ruiz S, Soriguer R, Figuerola J. A field test of the dilution effect hypothesis in four avian multi-host pathogens. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009637. [PMID: 34161394 PMCID: PMC8221496 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The Dilution Effect Hypothesis (DEH) argues that greater biodiversity lowers the risk of disease and reduces the rates of pathogen transmission since more diverse communities harbour fewer competent hosts for any given pathogen, thereby reducing host exposure to the pathogen. DEH is expected to operate most intensely in vector-borne pathogens and when species-rich communities are not associated with increased host density. Overall, dilution will occur if greater species diversity leads to a lower contact rate between infected vectors and susceptible hosts, and between infected hosts and susceptible vectors. Field-based tests simultaneously analysing the prevalence of several multi-host pathogens in relation to host and vector diversity are required to validate DEH. We tested the relationship between the prevalence in house sparrows (Passer domesticus) of four vector-borne pathogens-three avian haemosporidians (including the avian malaria parasite Plasmodium and the malaria-like parasites Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon) and West Nile virus (WNV)-and vertebrate diversity. Birds were sampled at 45 localities in SW Spain for which extensive data on vector (mosquitoes) and vertebrate communities exist. Vertebrate censuses were conducted to quantify avian and mammal density, species richness and evenness. Contrary to the predictions of DEH, WNV seroprevalence and haemosporidian prevalence were not negatively associated with either vertebrate species richness or evenness. Indeed, the opposite pattern was found, with positive relationships between avian species richness and WNV seroprevalence, and Leucocytozoon prevalence being detected. When vector (mosquito) richness and evenness were incorporated into the models, all the previous associations between WNV prevalence and the vertebrate community variables remained unchanged. No significant association was found for Plasmodium prevalence and vertebrate community variables in any of the models tested. Despite the studied system having several characteristics that should favour the dilution effect (i.e., vector-borne pathogens, an area where vector and host densities are unrelated, and where host richness is not associated with an increase in host density), none of the relationships between host species diversity and species richness, and pathogen prevalence supported DEH and, in fact, amplification was found for three of the four pathogens tested. Consequently, the range of pathogens and communities studied needs to be broadened if we are to understand the ecological factors that favour dilution and how often these conditions occur in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Ferraguti
- Department of Wetland Ecology, Doñana Biological Station (EBD–CSIC), Seville, Spain
| | - Josué Martínez-de la Puente
- Department of Wetland Ecology, Doñana Biological Station (EBD–CSIC), Seville, Spain
- CIBER of Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel Ángel Jiménez–Clavero
- CIBER of Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA–CISA), Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Llorente
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA–CISA), Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain
| | - David Roiz
- Department of Wetland Ecology, Doñana Biological Station (EBD–CSIC), Seville, Spain
| | - Santiago Ruiz
- CIBER of Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Diputación de Huelva, Área de Medio Ambiente, Servicio de Control de Mosquitos, Huelva, Spain
| | - Ramón Soriguer
- CIBER of Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Department of Ethology & Biodiversity Conservation, Doñana Biological Station (EBD–CSIC), Seville, Spain
| | - Jordi Figuerola
- Department of Wetland Ecology, Doñana Biological Station (EBD–CSIC), Seville, Spain
- CIBER of Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- * E-mail:
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9
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Bravo-Barriga D, Aguilera-Sepúlveda P, Guerrero-Carvajal F, Llorente F, Reina D, Pérez-Martín JE, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ, Frontera E. West Nile and Usutu virus infections in wild birds admitted to rehabilitation centres in Extremadura, western Spain, 2017-2019. Vet Microbiol 2021; 255:109020. [PMID: 33677369 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2021.109020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is an emerging flavivirus transmitted generally by mosquitoes of Culex genus. It is maintained in an enzootic life cycle where birds act as reservoir hosts. Humans and horses are also susceptible to infection, and occasionally, they suffer from neurological complications. However, they do not transmit the virus to other vectors, behaving as dead-end hosts. Sporadic WNV outbreaks observed in horses and wild birds from Extremadura (western Spain) during 2016 and 2017 seasons prompted to carry out this survey in wild birds, focused on specimens coming from two wildlife rehabilitation centres. Between October 2017 and December 2019, samples from 391 wild birds, belonging to 56 different species were collected and analysed in search of evidence of WNV infection. The analysis of serum samples for WNV-specific antibodies by ELISA, whose specificity was subsequently confirmed by virus-neutralisation test (VNT) showed positive results in 18.23 % birds belonging to 18 different species. Pelecaniformes (33.33 %), Accipitriformes (25.77 %) and Strigiformes (22.92 %) orders had the higher seroprevalences. Remarkably, WNV-specific antibodies were found in a black stork for the first time in Europe. Analysis by real time RT-PCR in symptomatic birds confirmed the presence of WNV lineage 1 RNA in griffon vulture and little owls. Specificity analysis of ELISA positive and doubtful sera was performed by differential VNT titration against WNV and two other cross-reacting avian flaviviruses found in Spain: Usutu virus (USUV) and Bagaza virus (BAGV). Only four samples showed USUV-specific antibodies (1.04 %) corresponding to three species: Eurasian eagle-owl, griffon vulture and great bustard (first detection in Europe) whereas no samples were found reactive to BAGV. Differential VNT yielded undetermined flavivirus result in 16 samples (4.17 %). This is the first study carried out on wild birds from Extremadura (western Spain). It highlights the widespread circulation of WNV in the region and its co-circulation with USUV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Bravo-Barriga
- Animal Health Department, Veterinary Faculty, University of Extremadura (UEx), Cáceres, Spain.
| | - Pilar Aguilera-Sepúlveda
- Animal Health Research Centre, National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology (INIA-CISA), Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain.
| | | | - Francisco Llorente
- Animal Health Research Centre, National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology (INIA-CISA), Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain.
| | - David Reina
- Animal Health Department, Veterinary Faculty, University of Extremadura (UEx), Cáceres, Spain.
| | - J Enrique Pérez-Martín
- Animal Health Department, Veterinary Faculty, University of Extremadura (UEx), Cáceres, Spain.
| | - Miguel Ángel Jiménez-Clavero
- Animal Health Research Centre, National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology (INIA-CISA), Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Epidemiologia y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain.
| | - Eva Frontera
- Animal Health Department, Veterinary Faculty, University of Extremadura (UEx), Cáceres, Spain.
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10
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Pallari CT, Efstathiou A, Moysi M, Papanikolas N, Christodoulou V, Mazeris A, Koliou M, Kirschel ANG. Evidence of West Nile virus seropositivity in wild birds on the island of Cyprus. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2020; 74:101592. [PMID: 33276289 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2020.101592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
West Nile Virus (WNV)1 is an emerging pathogen in Cyprus, with the first human case of infection reported in 2016, and another documented in 2018. A cluster of cases in humans was then reported in 2019. However, little is known regarding which avian species might bring WNV to Cyprus. Here, we investigated seroprevalence of WNV antibodies in migratory and resident birds, captured across Cyprus to assess to what extent human populations might be exposed to WNV. We used Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)2 to test for the presence of WNV antibodies in 836 avian blood samples of 44 species captured between 2015 and 2020. A seropositivity rate of 1.3 % was found. The majority of seropositive wild birds belonged to the migratory species Sylvia atricapilla, a common and widespread migrant, implying a high risk of WNV being introduced throughout Cyprus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chryso Th Pallari
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cyprus, PO Box 20537, Nicosia 1678, Cyprus
| | - Athina Efstathiou
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cyprus, PO Box 20537, Nicosia 1678, Cyprus
| | - Michaella Moysi
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cyprus, PO Box 20537, Nicosia 1678, Cyprus
| | - Nikolas Papanikolas
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cyprus, PO Box 20537, Nicosia 1678, Cyprus
| | | | | | - Maria Koliou
- Medical School, University of Cyprus, Siakoleio Center of Clinical Medicine, 2029 Aglantzia, PO Box 20537, 1678 Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Alexander N G Kirschel
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cyprus, PO Box 20537, Nicosia 1678, Cyprus.
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11
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Vidaña B, Busquets N, Napp S, Pérez-Ramírez E, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ, Johnson N. The Role of Birds of Prey in West Nile Virus Epidemiology. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:vaccines8030550. [PMID: 32967268 PMCID: PMC7564710 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8030550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Reported human cases of West Nile virus (WNV) in Europe increased dramatically in 2018. Lineage 1 strains had been circulating in Euro-Mediterranean countries since the early 1990s. The subsequent introduction of WNV lineage 2 has been responsible for the remarkable upsurge of European WNV outbreaks since 2004, including the dramatic increase in human cases observed since 2018. The virus exists in a natural cycle between mosquitoes and wild birds, with humans and horses acting as dead-end hosts. As the key vertebrate hosts in the transmission cycle of WNV, avian species have been the focus of surveillance across many countries. Raptors appear particularly susceptible to WNV infection, resulting in higher prevalence, and in some cases exhibiting neurological signs that lead to the death of the animal. In addition, birds of prey are known to play an important role as WNV reservoir and potentially amplifying hosts of infection. Importantly, raptor higher susceptibility/prevalence may indicate infection through predation of infected prey. Consequently, they are considered important target species when designing cost-effective surveillance for monitoring both seasonal WNV circulation in endemic countries and its emergence into new areas, where migrating raptors may play a critical role in virus introduction. This review summarizes the different aspects of the current knowledge of WNV infection in birds of prey and evaluates their role in the evolution of the epizootic that is spreading throughout Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Vidaña
- Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK
- Correspondence:
| | - Núria Busquets
- IRTA, Animal Health Research Centre (CReSA IRTA-UAB), 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; (N.B.); (S.N.)
| | - Sebastian Napp
- IRTA, Animal Health Research Centre (CReSA IRTA-UAB), 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; (N.B.); (S.N.)
| | - Elisa Pérez-Ramírez
- Animal Health Research Centre INIA-CISA C, 28130 Madrid, Spain; (E.P.-R.); (M.Á.J.-C.)
| | | | - Nicholas Johnson
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK;
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12
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Guerrero-Carvajal F, Bravo-Barriga D, Martín-Cuervo M, Aguilera-Sepúlveda P, Ferraguti M, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ, Llorente F, Alonso JM, Frontera E. Serological evidence of co-circulation of West Nile and Usutu viruses in equids from western Spain. Transbound Emerg Dis 2020; 68:1432-1444. [PMID: 32853452 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne emerging virus in Europe with capacity to cause neurological complications such as encephalitis or meningoencephalitis in humans, birds or equids. In Spain, WNV is actively circulating in mosquitoes, birds and horses in different regions, but never has been deeply studied in Extremadura. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the seroprevalence of WNV in equids of those areas and to analyse the risk factors associated with exposure to the virus. A total of 199 out of 725 equids presented antibodies against WNV by competition ELISA (27.45%), while 22 were doubtful (3.03%). Anti-WNV IgM antibodies were detected in 16 equids (2.21%), and 3 animals were doubtful (0.41%). All ELISA-reactive positive/doubtful sera (N = 226) were further tested by micro-virus neutralization test (VNT), and a total of 143 horses were confirmed as positive for WNV, obtaining a seroprevalence of 19.72% in equids of western Spain. In addition, specific antibodies against USUV were confirmed in 11 equids. In 24 equids, a specific flavivirus species (detected by ELISA test) could not be determined. The generalized linear mixed-effects models showed that the significant risk factors associated with individual WNV infection in equids were the age (adults) and hair coat colour (light), whereas in USUV infections, it was the breed (pure). Data demonstrated that WNV and USUV are circulating in regions of western Spain. Given the high WNV seroprevalence found in equids from the studied areas, it is important to improve the surveillance programmes of public health to detect undiagnosed human cases and to establish a vaccination programme in equid herds in these regions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel Bravo-Barriga
- Animal Health Department, Veterinary Faculty, University of Extremadura (UEx), Cáceres, Spain
| | - María Martín-Cuervo
- Animal Medicine Department, Veterinary Faculty, University of Extremadura (UEx), Cáceres, Spain
| | - Pilar Aguilera-Sepúlveda
- Animal Health Research Centre, National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology (INIA-CISA), Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Martina Ferraguti
- Anatomy, Cellular Biology and Zoology Department, Science Faculty, University of Extremadura (UEx), Badajoz, Spain
| | - Miguel Ángel Jiménez-Clavero
- Animal Health Research Centre, National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology (INIA-CISA), Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Epidemiologia y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Llorente
- Animal Health Research Centre, National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology (INIA-CISA), Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan Manuel Alonso
- Animal Health Department, Veterinary Faculty, University of Extremadura (UEx), Cáceres, Spain
| | - Eva Frontera
- Animal Health Department, Veterinary Faculty, University of Extremadura (UEx), Cáceres, Spain
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13
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Ferraguti M, Heesterbeek H, Martínez-de la Puente J, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ, Vázquez A, Ruiz S, Llorente F, Roiz D, Vernooij H, Soriguer R, Figuerola J. The role of different Culex mosquito species in the transmission of West Nile virus and avian malaria parasites in Mediterranean areas. Transbound Emerg Dis 2020; 68:920-930. [PMID: 32748497 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2020] [Revised: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Vector-borne diseases, especially those transmitted by mosquitoes, have severe impacts on public health and economy. West Nile virus (WNV) and avian malaria parasites of the genus Plasmodium are mosquito-borne pathogens that may produce severe disease and illness in humans and birds, respectively, and circulate in an endemic form in southern Europe. Here, we used field-collected data to identify the impact of Culex pipiens, Cx. perexiguus and Cx. modestus, on the circulation of both WNV and Plasmodium in Andalusia (SW Spain) using mathematical modelling of the basic reproduction number (R0 ). Models were calibrated with field-collected data on WNV seroprevalence and Plasmodium infection in wild house sparrows, presence of WNV and Plasmodium in mosquito pools, and mosquito blood-feeding patterns. This approach allowed us to determine the contribution of each vector species to pathogen amplification. Overall, 0.7% and 29.6% of house sparrows were positive to WNV antibodies and Plasmodium infection, respectively. In addition, the prevalence of Plasmodium was higher in Cx. pipiens (2.0%), followed by Cx. perexiguus (1.8%) and Cx. modestus (0.7%). Three pools of Cx. perexiguus were positive to WVN. Models identified Cx. perexiguus as the most important species contributing to the amplification of WNV in southern Spain. For Plasmodium models, R0 values were higher when Cx. pipiens was present in the population, either alone or in combination with the other mosquito species. These results suggest that the transmission of these vector-borne pathogens depends on different Culex species, and consequently, their transmission niches will present different spatial and temporal patterns. For WNV, targeted surveillance and control of Cx. perexiguus populations appear as the most effective measure to reduce WNV amplification. Also, preventing Culex populations near human settlements, or reducing the abundance of these species, are potential strategies to reduce WNV spillover into human populations in southern Spain.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hans Heesterbeek
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Josué Martínez-de la Puente
- Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), Seville, Spain.,Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red de Epidemiologia y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel Ángel Jiménez-Clavero
- Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red de Epidemiologia y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal - Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA-CISA), Valdeolmos, Spain
| | - Ana Vázquez
- Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red de Epidemiologia y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain.,Laboratorio de Arbovirus y Enfermedades Víricas Importadas, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Santiago Ruiz
- Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red de Epidemiologia y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain.,Servicio de Control de Mosquitos, Área de Medio Ambiente, Huelva, Spain
| | - Francisco Llorente
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal - Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA-CISA), Valdeolmos, Spain
| | - David Roiz
- Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), Seville, Spain
| | - Hans Vernooij
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ramón Soriguer
- Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), Seville, Spain.,Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red de Epidemiologia y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - Jordi Figuerola
- Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), Seville, Spain.,Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red de Epidemiologia y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
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14
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Vilibic-Cavlek T, Petrovic T, Savic V, Barbic L, Tabain I, Stevanovic V, Klobucar A, Mrzljak A, Ilic M, Bogdanic M, Benvin I, Santini M, Capak K, Monaco F, Listes E, Savini G. Epidemiology of Usutu Virus: The European Scenario. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9090699. [PMID: 32858963 PMCID: PMC7560012 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9090699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2020] [Revised: 08/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Usutu virus (USUV) is an emerging arbovirus isolated in 1959 (Usutu River, Swaziland). Previously restricted to sub-Saharan Africa, the virus was introduced in Europe in 1996. While the USUV has received little attention in Africa, the virus emergence has prompted numerous studies with robust epidemiological surveillance programs in Europe. The natural transmission cycle of USUV involves mosquitoes (vectors) and birds (amplifying hosts) with humans and other mammals considered incidental ("dead-end") hosts. In Africa, the virus was isolated in mosquitoes, rodents and birds and serologically detected in horses and dogs. In Europe, USUV was detected in bats, whereas antibodies were found in different animal species (horses, dogs, squirrels, wild boar, deer and lizards). While bird mortalities were not reported in Africa, in Europe USUV was shown to be highly pathogenic for several bird species, especially blackbirds (Turdus merula) and great gray owls (Strix nebulosa). Furthermore, neurotropism of USUV for humans was reported for the first time in both immunocompromised and immunocompetent patients. Epizootics and genetic diversity of USUV in different bird species as well as detection of the virus in mosquitoes suggest repeated USUV introductions into Europe with endemization in some countries. The zoonotic potential of USUV has been reported in a growing number of human cases. Clinical cases of neuroinvasive disease and USUV fever, as well as seroconversion in blood donors were reported in Europe since 2009. While most USUV strains detected in humans, birds and mosquitoes belong to European USUV lineages, several reports indicate the presence of African lineages as well. Since spreading trends of USUV are likely to continue, continuous multidisciplinary interventions ("One Health" concept) should be conducted for monitoring and prevention of this emerging arboviral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatjana Vilibic-Cavlek
- Department of Virology, Croatian Institute of Public Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (I.T.); (M.B.)
- School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +385-1-4863-238
| | - Tamas Petrovic
- Department for Virology, Scientific Veterinary Institute, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia;
| | - Vladimir Savic
- Poultry Center, Croatian Veterinary Institute, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Ljubo Barbic
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases with Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (L.B.); (V.S.); (I.B.)
| | - Irena Tabain
- Department of Virology, Croatian Institute of Public Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (I.T.); (M.B.)
| | - Vladimir Stevanovic
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases with Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (L.B.); (V.S.); (I.B.)
| | - Ana Klobucar
- Department of Epidemiology, Andrija Stampar Teaching Institute of Public Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Anna Mrzljak
- School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
- Department of Medicine, Merkur University Hospital, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Maja Ilic
- Department of Epidemiology, Croatian Institute of Public Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Maja Bogdanic
- Department of Virology, Croatian Institute of Public Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (I.T.); (M.B.)
| | - Iva Benvin
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases with Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (L.B.); (V.S.); (I.B.)
| | - Marija Santini
- Department for Intensive Care Medicine and Neuroinfectology, University Hospital for Infectious Diseases “Dr Fran Mihaljevic”, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Krunoslav Capak
- Environmental Health Department, Croatian Institute of Public Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Federica Monaco
- OIE Reference Center for West Nile Disease, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale “G. Caporale”, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (F.M.); (G.S.)
| | - Eddy Listes
- Laboratory for Diagnostics, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Regional Institute Split, 21000 Split, Croatia;
| | - Giovanni Savini
- OIE Reference Center for West Nile Disease, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale “G. Caporale”, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (F.M.); (G.S.)
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15
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Paaijmans K, Brustollin M, Aranda C, Eritja R, Talavera S, Pagès N, Huijben S. Phenotypic insecticide resistance in arbovirus mosquito vectors in Catalonia and its capital Barcelona (Spain). PLoS One 2019; 14:e0217860. [PMID: 31276554 PMCID: PMC6611561 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0217860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
A range of mosquito species that belong to the Culicidae family are responsible for the worldwide transmission of infectious arboviral diseases such as dengue fever, Zika, West Nile fever and Chikungunya fever. Spain is at risk of arbovirus outbreaks, as various arboviral diseases are frequently introduced and it has established competent vector populations. Autochthonous human cases of West Nile virus have been reported infrequently since 2004, and since October 2018 three autochthonous human case of dengue fever have been confirmed. In response to an outbreak of any arboviral disease, space spraying or fogging will be implemented to control adult mosquito populations. To ensure adulticiding is cost-effective, the insecticide susceptibility status of vectors throughout Catalonia, an autonomous region in north-eastern Spain, was assessed through standardized WHO tube and CDC bottle bioassays. All Culex pipiens populations tested were resistant to at least one of the pyrethroids tested, whereas Aedes albopictus populations were susceptible to all pyrethroids tested. More detailed studies on the Cx. pipiens populations from the Barcelona area (the capital and largest city of Catalonia) revealed resistance to all four classes of public health insecticides available (pyrethroids, carbamates, organophosphates and organochlorides). All Ae. albopictus populations were susceptible to those classes, except for one of the tests performed with pirimiphos-methyl (an organophosphate). Pyrethroids are currently the first line chemical class to be used in space spray operations in response to an outbreak of an arboviral disease. While pyrethroids can be effective in reducing Ae. albopictus populations, this class may not be effective to control Cx. pipiens populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krijn Paaijmans
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain
- School of Life Sciences, Center for Evolution and Medicine, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States of America
- The Biodesign Center for Immunotherapy, Vaccines and Virotherapy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States of America
| | - Marco Brustollin
- Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA IRTA), Barcelona, Spain
- The Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, and the Huck Institutes of The Life Sciences, Millennium Science Complex, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States of America
| | - Carles Aranda
- Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA IRTA), Barcelona, Spain
- Servei de Control de Mosquits, Consell Comarcal del Baix Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Roger Eritja
- Servei de Control de Mosquits, Consell Comarcal del Baix Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- CREAF, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | - Sandra Talavera
- Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA IRTA), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Nonito Pagès
- Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA IRTA), Barcelona, Spain
- CIRAD, UMR ASTRE, Petit Bourg, Guadeloupe, France
- ASTRE, CIRAD, INRA, Montpellier University, Montpellier, France
| | - Silvie Huijben
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain
- School of Life Sciences, Center for Evolution and Medicine, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States of America
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16
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Llorente F, García-Irazábal A, Pérez-Ramírez E, Cano-Gómez C, Sarasa M, Vázquez A, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ. Influence of flavivirus co-circulation in serological diagnostics and surveillance: A model of study using West Nile, Usutu and Bagaza viruses. Transbound Emerg Dis 2019; 66:2100-2106. [PMID: 31150146 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 05/12/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
This study aims at assessing the serological cross-reactions existing between three mosquito-borne flaviviruses with avian reservoirs co-circulating in Europe: West Nile (WNV), Usutu (USUV) and Bagaza (BAGV). The study is useful for a better interpretation of serological results in diagnostics and surveillance. Serum samples obtained from a natural host, the red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa), experimentally infected with WNV, USUV or BAGV were analysed using two commercially available WNV competition ELISAs suitable for serological surveillance, and by the confirmatory virus neutralization test (VNT). The ELISAs examined showed different levels of specificity for WNV, as judged by cross-reaction observed with the other flaviviruses. By VNT, virus-specific antibodies were confirmed in 80%, 50% or 0% of sera from WNV-, BAGV-, or USUV-inoculated birds, respectively. The results indicate how the co-circulation of cross-reacting flaviviruses may affect the outcomes of WNV serological surveillance when applying currently available serological tools. On the one hand, the choice of the ELISA test for antibody screening should consider the differences found in specificity, since one test is more specific for WNV while the other one is more suitable for detection of a broader range of flavivirus antibodies. On the other hand, besides corroborating that cross-neutralization occurs between flaviviruses from different serocomplexes (WNV/USUV and BAGV), this study points out that cross-neutralization between WNV and USUV is not symmetric, and reveals the difficulty to identify USUV infections serologically. This finding indicates that actual USUV infections might be underestimated in the current diagnostic schemes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Llorente
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA-CISA), Valdeolmos, Spain
| | | | - Elisa Pérez-Ramírez
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA-CISA), Valdeolmos, Spain
| | - Cristina Cano-Gómez
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA-CISA), Valdeolmos, Spain
| | | | - Ana Vázquez
- Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel Ángel Jiménez-Clavero
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA-CISA), Valdeolmos, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
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17
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Esser HJ, Mögling R, Cleton NB, van der Jeugd H, Sprong H, Stroo A, Koopmans MPG, de Boer WF, Reusken CBEM. Risk factors associated with sustained circulation of six zoonotic arboviruses: a systematic review for selection of surveillance sites in non-endemic areas. Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:265. [PMID: 31133059 PMCID: PMC6537422 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3515-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Arboviruses represent a significant burden to public health and local economies due to their ability to cause unpredictable and widespread epidemics. To maximize early detection of arbovirus emergence in non-endemic areas, surveillance efforts should target areas where circulation is most likely. However, identifying such hotspots of potential emergence is a major challenge. The ecological conditions leading to arbovirus outbreaks are shaped by complex interactions between the virus, its vertebrate hosts, arthropod vector, and abiotic environment that are often poorly understood. Here, we systematically review the ecological risk factors associated with the circulation of six arboviruses that are of considerable concern to northwestern Europe. These include three mosquito-borne viruses (Japanese encephalitis virus, West Nile virus, Rift Valley fever virus) and three tick-borne viruses (Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, tick-borne encephalitis virus, and louping-ill virus). We consider both intrinsic (e.g. vector and reservoir host competence) and extrinsic (e.g. temperature, precipitation, host densities, land use) risk factors, identify current knowledge gaps, and discuss future directions. Our systematic review provides baseline information for the identification of regions and habitats that have suitable ecological conditions for endemic circulation, and therefore may be used to target early warning surveillance programs aimed at detecting multi-virus and/or arbovirus emergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen J Esser
- Resource Ecology Group, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands. .,Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Ramona Mögling
- Department of Viroscience, WHO CC for arbovirus and viral hemorrhagic fever reference and research, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Natalie B Cleton
- Department of Viroscience, WHO CC for arbovirus and viral hemorrhagic fever reference and research, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Henk van der Jeugd
- Vogeltrekstation-Dutch Centre for Avian Migration and Demography, Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Hein Sprong
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Arjan Stroo
- Centre for Monitoring of Vectors (CMV), National Reference Centre (NRC), Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority (NVWA), Ministry of Economic Affairs, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marion P G Koopmans
- Department of Viroscience, WHO CC for arbovirus and viral hemorrhagic fever reference and research, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Willem F de Boer
- Resource Ecology Group, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Chantal B E M Reusken
- Department of Viroscience, WHO CC for arbovirus and viral hemorrhagic fever reference and research, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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18
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Vilibic-Cavlek T, Savic V, Petrovic T, Toplak I, Barbic L, Petric D, Tabain I, Hrnjakovic-Cvjetkovic I, Bogdanic M, Klobucar A, Mrzljak A, Stevanovic V, Dinjar-Kujundzic P, Radmanic L, Monaco F, Listes E, Savini G. Emerging Trends in the Epidemiology of West Nile and Usutu Virus Infections in Southern Europe. Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:437. [PMID: 31867347 PMCID: PMC6908483 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The epidemiology of West Nile (WNV) and Usutu virus (USUV) has changed dramatically over the past two decades. Since 1999, there have been regular reports of WNV outbreaks and the virus has expanded its area of circulation in many Southern European countries. After emerging in Italy in 1996, USUV has spread to other countries causing mortality in several bird species. In 2009, USUV seroconversion in horses was reported in Italy. Co-circulation of both viruses was detected in humans, horses and birds. The main vector of WNV and USUV in Europe is Culex pipiens, however, both viruses were found in native Culex mosquito species (Cx. modestus, Cx. perexiguus). Experimental competence to transmit the WNV was also proven for native and invasive mosquitoes of Aedes and Culex genera (Ae. albopictus, Ae. detritus, Cx. torrentium). Recently, Ae. albopictus and Ae. japonicus naturally-infected with USUV were reported. While neuroinvasive human WNV infections are well-documented, USUV infections are sporadically detected. However, there is increasing evidence of a role of USUV in human disease. Seroepidemiological studies showed that USUV circulation is more common than WNV in some endemic regions. Recent data showed that WNV strains detected in humans, horses, birds, and mosquitoes mainly belong to lineage 2. In addition to European USUV lineages, some reports indicate the presence of African USUV lineages as well. The trends in WNV/USUV range and vector expansion are likely to continue in future years. This mini-review provides an update on the epidemiology of WNV and USUV infections in Southern Europe within a multidisciplinary "One Health" context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatjana Vilibic-Cavlek
- Department of Virology, Croatian Institute of Public Health, Zagreb, Croatia
- School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
- *Correspondence: Tatjana Vilibic-Cavlek
| | - Vladimir Savic
- Poultry Center, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Tamas Petrovic
- Department for Virology, Scientific Veterinary Institute, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Ivan Toplak
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Ljubo Barbic
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases With Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Dusan Petric
- Laboratory for Medical and Veterinary Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Irena Tabain
- Department of Virology, Croatian Institute of Public Health, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ivana Hrnjakovic-Cvjetkovic
- Center for Microbiology, Institute of Public Health Vojvodina, Novi Sad, Serbia
- Medical Faculty, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Maja Bogdanic
- Department of Virology, Croatian Institute of Public Health, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ana Klobucar
- Division of Disinfection, Disinfestation and Pest Control, Andrija Stampar Teaching Institute of Public Health, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Anna Mrzljak
- School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
- Department of Medicine, Merkur University Hospital, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Vladimir Stevanovic
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases With Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | | | - Luka Radmanic
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases With Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Federica Monaco
- OIE Reference Center for West Nile Disease, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale “G. Caporale”, Teramo, Italy
| | - Eddy Listes
- Laboratory for Diagnostics, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Regional Institute Split, Split, Croatia
| | - Giovanni Savini
- OIE Reference Center for West Nile Disease, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale “G. Caporale”, Teramo, Italy
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19
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Mosquito community influences West Nile virus seroprevalence in wild birds: implications for the risk of spillover into human populations. Sci Rep 2018; 8:2599. [PMID: 29422507 PMCID: PMC5805708 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-20825-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 01/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Mosquito community composition plays a central role in the transmission of zoonotic vector-borne pathogens. We evaluated how the mosquito community affects the seroprevalence of West Nile virus (WNV) in house sparrows along an urbanisation gradient in an area with the endemic circulation of this virus. We sampled 2544 birds and 340829 mosquitoes in 45 localities, analysed in 15 groups, each containing one urban, one rural and one natural area. WNV seroprevalence was evaluated using an epitope-blocking ELISA kit and a micro virus-neutralization test (VNT). The presence of WNV antibodies was confirmed in 1.96% and 0.67% of birds by ELISA and VNT, respectively. The VNT-seropositive birds were captured in rural and natural areas, but not in urban areas. Human population density was zero in all the localities where VNT-positive birds were captured, which potentially explains the low incidence of human WNV cases in the area. The prevalence of neutralizing antibodies against WNV was positively correlated with the abundance of the ornithophilic Culex perexiguus but negatively associated with the abundance of the mammophilic Ochlerotatus caspius and Anopheles atroparvus. These results suggest that the enzootic circulation of WNV in Spain occurs in areas with larger populations of Cx. perexiguus and low human population densities.
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20
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García-Bocanegra I, Jurado-Tarifa E, Cano-Terriza D, Martínez R, Pérez-Marín JE, Lecollinet S. Exposure to West Nile virus and tick-borne encephalitis virus in dogs in Spain. Transbound Emerg Dis 2018; 65:765-772. [PMID: 29322674 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
In the past decade, the spread of emerging zoonotic flaviviruses (genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae) has been reported in many regions worldwide, representing a threat to both human and animal health. A serosurvey was carried out to assess exposure and risk factors associated with antigenically related flaviviruses, particularly West Nile virus (WNV), Usutu virus (USUV) and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), in dogs in Spain. Flavivirus antibodies were detected in 39 of 815 dogs (4.8%; 95% CI: 3.3-6.3) by bELISA. Significantly higher seropositivity was observed in hunting dogs compared to pet dogs. Virus neutralization tests confirmed WNV-specific and TBEV-specific antibodies in 11 and 14 bELISA-positive dogs, respectively. This is the first serosurvey of WNV and TBEV in dogs in Spain and the first report of TBEV circulation in this country. The seropositivity obtained indicates widespread, but not homogeneous, distribution of WNV and TBEV in dogs in Spain. In 2013 and 2015, WNV-seropositive dogs were detected in those areas of Andalusia where the highest number of WNV outbreaks were reported in both horses and humans. Antibodies against TBEV have been found in dogs sampled in two different periods and regions in Spain. Serosurveillance in dogs could be a complementary way of monitoring the activity of emerging flaviviruses in Spain.
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Affiliation(s)
- I García-Bocanegra
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Córdoba-Agrifood Excellence International Campus (ceiA3), Córdoba, Spain
| | - E Jurado-Tarifa
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Córdoba-Agrifood Excellence International Campus (ceiA3), Córdoba, Spain
| | - D Cano-Terriza
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Córdoba-Agrifood Excellence International Campus (ceiA3), Córdoba, Spain
| | - R Martínez
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain
| | - J E Pérez-Marín
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain
| | - S Lecollinet
- Laboratoire de Santé Animale de Maisons-Alfort, UMR 1161 Virologie, INRA, ANSES, ENVA, Maisons-Alfort, France
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