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Li P, Zhou M, Yan W, Du J, Lu S, Xie S, Zhang R. Altered resting-state functional connectivity of the right precuneus and cognition between depressed and non-depressed schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 2021; 317:111387. [PMID: 34509807 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2021.111387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The study investigated the resting-state functional connectivity (FC) and cognitive changes in patients with depressed schizophrenia(DS) and non-depressed schizophrenia(NDS). Eighty patients with first-episode schizophrenia and 50 healthy controls (HC) were included to conduct resting-state fMRI. All participants completed MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB). The right precuneus was selected as the seed in whole-brain FC analysis. Our results showed the cognitive function (All MCCB dimensions) of all schizophrenia patients were worse than HC, but no differences were found between DS and NDS. The DS had decreased FC than NDS between the right precuneus and left middle cingulate gyrus, left cerebellum, right cerebellum. The DS had increased FC than HC between the right precuneus and temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and decreased FC between the right precuneus and left cerebellum. However, the NDS had increased FC than HC between the right precuneus and left cerebellum, right cerebellum, temporal lobe, occipital lobe, left superior parietal lobule. Correlation analysis showed that FC between the right precuneus and occipital lobe was negatively correlated with visual learning in DS and with social cognition in NDS. Our results suggest DS and NDS patients have different patterns of FC, and their FC changes correlate with different domains of cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pingping Li
- Department of Psychiatry, Affiliated Nanjing Brain Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Min Zhou
- Department of Psychiatry, Affiliated Nanjing Brain Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Wei Yan
- Department of Psychiatry, Affiliated Nanjing Brain Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Jinglun Du
- Department of Psychiatry, Affiliated Nanjing Brain Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Shuiping Lu
- Department of Psychiatry, Affiliated Nanjing Brain Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Shiping Xie
- Department of Psychiatry, Affiliated Nanjing Brain Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China.
| | - Rongrong Zhang
- Department of Psychiatry, Affiliated Nanjing Brain Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
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Chai Y, Ji C, Coloigner J, Choi S, Balderrama M, Vu C, Tamrazi B, Coates T, Wood JC, O'Neil SH, Lepore N. Tract-specific analysis and neurocognitive functioning in sickle cell patients without history of overt stroke. Brain Behav 2021; 11:e01978. [PMID: 33434353 PMCID: PMC7994688 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.1978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a hereditary blood disorder in which the oxygen-carrying hemoglobin molecule in red blood cells is abnormal. SCD patients are at increased risks for strokes and neurocognitive deficit, even though neurovascular screening and treatments have lowered the rate of overt strokes. Tract-specific analysis (TSA) is a statistical method to evaluate microstructural WM damage in neurodegenerative disorders, using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). METHODS We utilized TSA and compared 11 major brain WM tracts between SCD patients with no history of overt stroke, anemic controls, and healthy controls. We additionally examined the relationship between the most commonly used DTI metric of WM tracts and neurocognitive performance in the SCD patients and healthy controls. RESULTS Disruption of WM microstructure orientation-dependent metrics for the SCD patients was found in the genu of the corpus callosum (CC), cortico-spinal tract, inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus, right inferior longitudinal fasciculus, superior longitudinal fasciculus, and left uncinate fasciculus. Neurocognitive performance indicated slower processing speed and lower response inhibition skills in SCD patients compared to controls. TSA abnormalities in the CC were significantly associated with measures of processing speed, working memory, and executive functions. CONCLUSION Decreased DTI-derived metrics were observed on six tracts in chronically anemic patients, regardless of anemia subtype, while two tracks with decreased measures were unique to SCD patients. Patients with WMHs had more significant FA abnormalities. Decreased FA values in the CC significantly correlated with all nine neurocognitive tests, suggesting a critical importance for CC in core neurocognitive processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaqiong Chai
- CIBORG LaboratoryDepartment of RadiologyChildren's Hospital Los AngelesLos AngelesCAUSA
- Department of RadiologyChildren's Hospital Los AngelesLos AngelesCAUSA
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - Chaoran Ji
- CIBORG LaboratoryDepartment of RadiologyChildren's Hospital Los AngelesLos AngelesCAUSA
- Department of RadiologyChildren's Hospital Los AngelesLos AngelesCAUSA
- Department of Electrical EngineeringUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - Julie Coloigner
- CIBORG LaboratoryDepartment of RadiologyChildren's Hospital Los AngelesLos AngelesCAUSA
- Division of CardiologyChildren's Hospital Los AngelesLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - Soyoung Choi
- Neuroscience Graduate ProgramUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - Melissa Balderrama
- Department of PediatricsKeck School of MedicineUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
- Division of Hematology, Oncology, and Blood and Marrow TransplantationChildren's Hospital Los AngelesLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - Chau Vu
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - Benita Tamrazi
- Department of RadiologyChildren's Hospital Los AngelesLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - Thomas Coates
- Department of PediatricsKeck School of MedicineUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
- Division of Hematology, Oncology, and Blood and Marrow TransplantationChildren's Hospital Los AngelesLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - John C. Wood
- Division of CardiologyChildren's Hospital Los AngelesLos AngelesCAUSA
- Department of PediatricsKeck School of MedicineUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - Sharon H. O'Neil
- Department of PediatricsKeck School of MedicineUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
- Division of NeurologyChildren's Hospital Los AngelesLos AngelesCAUSA
- The Saban Research InstituteChildren's Hospital Los AngelesLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - Natasha Lepore
- CIBORG LaboratoryDepartment of RadiologyChildren's Hospital Los AngelesLos AngelesCAUSA
- Department of RadiologyChildren's Hospital Los AngelesLos AngelesCAUSA
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
- Department of PediatricsKeck School of MedicineUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
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Bayard S, Capdevielle D, Boulenger JP, Raffard S. Dissociating self-reported cognitive complaint from clinical insight in schizophrenia. Eur Psychiatry 2020; 24:251-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2008.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2008] [Revised: 11/30/2008] [Accepted: 12/27/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractWhereas new pharmacological treatments are developed for cognitive impairments in schizophrenia, self-assessment of cognitive dysfunctioning besides their objective validity could be of interest in evaluating patients' motivation to engage in rehabilitation program. Nevertheless insight into symptoms is severely impaired in schizophrenia and is negatively linked with poor compliance. But it is yet unknown if patients with poor insight into their symptoms could have some insight into their cognitive impairments. The aim of this study was to explore the relationships existing between the cognitive complaint and the level of awareness of the disease in patients with schizophrenia. A total of 101 patients with DSM-IV schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder and 60 control participants were recruited. Insight was assessed using the Scale to assess Unawareness of Mental Disorder (SUMD) and cognitive complaint intensity was assessed with the Scale to Investigate Cognition in Schizophrenia (SSTICS). Participants with schizophrenia displayed the same level of cognitive complaint when compared to healthy controls. Strong correlations were observed between SSTICS total score and duration of illness, levels of depression and state anxiety. Patients with a good insight into the therapeutic effects achieved with medication expressed a more important cognitive complaint. No correlations were found between the four others SUMD insight dimensions and total SSTICS score. The partial overlap of insight into illness and cognitive complaint suggests that insight is modular in schizophrenia. Assessment of cognitive complaint and awareness of illness need to be assessed before engagement in rehabilitation program.
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Herniman SE, Cotton SM, Killackey E, Hester R, Allott KA. Co-morbid depressive disorder is associated with better neurocognitive performance in first episode schizophrenia spectrum. J Affect Disord 2018; 229:498-505. [PMID: 29334645 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2017.12.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Revised: 11/11/2017] [Accepted: 12/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Both major depressive disorder (MDD) and first episode schizophrenia spectrum (FES) are associated with significant neurocognitive deficits. However, it remains unclear whether the neurocognitive deficits in individuals with FES are more severe if there is comorbid depressive disorder. The aim of this study was to compare the neurocognitive profiles between those with and without full-threshold depressive disorder in FES. METHOD This study involved secondary analysis of baseline data from a randomized controlled trial of vocational intervention for young people with first-episode psychosis (N = 82; age range: 15-25 years). RESULTS Those with full-threshold depressive disorder (n = 24) had significantly better information processing speed than those without full-threshold depressive disorder. Severity of depressive symptoms was also associated with better information processing speed. LIMITATIONS In additional to the cross-sectional design, limitations of this study include the absence of assessing insight as a potential mediator. CONCLUSIONS After the first psychotic episode, it could be speculated that those with better information processing speed may be more likely to develop full-threshold depressive disorder, as their ability to efficiently process information may allow them to be more aware of their situations and environments, and consequently to have greater insight into the devastating consequences of FES. Such novel findings support the examination of full-threshold depressive disorder in relation to neurocognitive performance across illness phases in future work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Herniman
- Orygen, the National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Locked Bag 10, 35 Poplar Road, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia; Centre for Youth Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Locked Bag 10, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia; Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne, Level 12, Redmond Barry Building 115, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia.
| | - Sue M Cotton
- Orygen, the National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Locked Bag 10, 35 Poplar Road, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia; Centre for Youth Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Locked Bag 10, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia.
| | - Eóin Killackey
- Orygen, the National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Locked Bag 10, 35 Poplar Road, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia; Centre for Youth Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Locked Bag 10, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia.
| | - Robert Hester
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Locked Bag 10, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia.
| | - Kelly A Allott
- Orygen, the National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Locked Bag 10, 35 Poplar Road, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia; Centre for Youth Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Locked Bag 10, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia.
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Rahati M, Nozari M, Eslami H, Shabani M, Basiri M. Effects of enriched environment on alterations in the prefrontal cortex GFAP- and S100B-immunopositive astrocytes and behavioral deficits in MK-801-treated rats. Neuroscience 2016; 326:105-116. [PMID: 27063100 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.03.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2016] [Revised: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
A plethora of studies have indicated that enriched environment (EE) paradigm provokes plastic and morphological changes in astrocytes with accompanying increments of their density and positively affects the behavior of rodents. We also previously documented that EE could be employed to preclude several behavioral abnormalities, mainly cognitive deficits, attributed to postnatal N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist (MK-801) treatment, as a rodent model of schizophrenia (SCH) aspects. Given this, the current study quantitatively investigated the number of cells, presumed to be astrocytes, expressing two astroglia-associated proteins (S100B and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)) by immunohistochemistry in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), along with anxiety and passive avoidance (PA) learning behaviors by utilizing elevated plus maze (EPM) and shuttle-box tests, in MK-801-treated male wistar rats submitted to EE and non-EE rats. Following a treatment regime of sub-chronic MK-801 (1.0mg/kg i.p. daily for five consecutive days from postnatal day (P) 6), S-100B-positive cells and anxiety level were markedly increased, while the GFAP-positive cells and PA learning were notably attenuated. The trend of diminished GFAP-immunopositive cells and elevated S100B-immunostained cells in the PFC was reversed in the SCH-like rats by exposure of animals to EE, commencing from birth up to the time of experiments on P28-85. Additionally, EE exhibited an ameliorating effect on the behavioral abnormalities evoked by MK-801. Overall, present findings support that improper astrocyte functioning and behavioral changes, reminiscent of the many facets of SCH, occur consequential to repetitive administration of MK-801 and that raising rat pups in an EE mitigates these alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Rahati
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, Afzalipour School of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran; Neuroscience Research Center, Neuropharmacology Institute, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - M Nozari
- Department of Physiology, Afzalipour School of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - H Eslami
- Department of Pharmacology, Molecular Medicine Research Center, Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran
| | - M Shabani
- Neuroscience Research Center, Neuropharmacology Institute, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - M Basiri
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, Afzalipour School of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran; Neuroscience Research Center, Neuropharmacology Institute, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran.
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Jepsen JRM, Fagerlund B, Pagsberg AK, Christensen AMR, Nordentoft M, Mortensen EL. Profile of cognitive deficits and associations with depressive symptoms and intelligence in chronic early-onset schizophrenia patients. Scand J Psychol 2013; 54:363-70. [DOI: 10.1111/sjop.12062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2013] [Accepted: 03/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Birgitte Fagerlund
- Lundbeck Foundation Centre for Clinical Intervention and Neuropsychiatric Schizophrenia; Research and Center for Neuropsychiatric Schizophrenia Research; Psychiatric Centre Glostrup; Copenhagen University Hospital Glostrup; Denmark
| | - Anne Katrine Pagsberg
- Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Center Bispebjerg; Copenhagen University Hospital Bispebjerg; Denmark
| | | | - Merete Nordentoft
- Psychiatric Center Copenhagen; Copenhagen University Hospital Bispebjerg; Denmark
| | - Erik Lykke Mortensen
- Institute of Public Health and Center for Healthy Aging; University of Copenhagen; Denmark
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Brébion G, Villalta-Gil V, Autonell J, Cervilla J, Dolz M, Foix A, Haro JM, Usall J, Vilaplana M, Ochoa S. Cognitive correlates of verbal memory and verbal fluency in schizophrenia, and differential effects of various clinical symptoms between male and female patients. Schizophr Res 2013; 147:81-85. [PMID: 23578747 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2013.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2012] [Revised: 02/27/2013] [Accepted: 03/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Impairment of higher cognitive functions in patients with schizophrenia might stem from perturbation of more basic functions, such as processing speed. Various clinical symptoms might affect cognitive efficiency as well. Notably, previous research has revealed the role of affective symptoms on memory performance in this population, and suggested sex-specific effects. METHOD We conducted a post-hoc analysis of an extensive neuropsychological study of 88 patients with schizophrenia. Regression analyses were conducted on verbal memory and verbal fluency data to investigate the contribution of semantic organisation and processing speed to performance. The role of negative and affective symptoms and of attention disorders in verbal memory and verbal fluency was investigated separately in male and female patients. RESULTS Semantic clustering contributed to verbal recall, and a measure of reading speed contributed to verbal recall as well as to phonological and semantic fluency. Negative symptoms affected verbal recall and verbal fluency in the male patients, whereas attention disorders affected these abilities in the female patients. Furthermore, depression affected verbal recall in women, whereas anxiety affected it in men. CONCLUSIONS These results confirm the association of processing speed with cognitive efficiency in patients with schizophrenia. They also confirm the previously observed sex-specific associations of depression and anxiety with memory performance in these patients, and suggest that negative symptoms and attention disorders likewise are related to cognitive efficiency differently in men and women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gildas Brébion
- Unitat de Recerca, Parc Sanitari Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, Spain; CIBERSAM, Spain.
| | - Victoria Villalta-Gil
- Fundació Sant Joan de Déu, Esplugues de Llobregat, and Departament de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain; CIBERSAM, Spain
| | - Jaume Autonell
- Unitat de Recerca, Parc Sanitari Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, Spain; Unitat de Recerca, Parc Sanitari Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jorge Cervilla
- Unidad de Salud Mental, Hospital Universitario San Cecilio, Granada, Spain; CIBERSAM, Spain
| | - Montserrat Dolz
- Hospital Materno Infantil, Parc Sanitari Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, Spain; CIBERSAM, Spain
| | - Alexandrina Foix
- Unitat de Recerca, Parc Sanitari Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, Spain; CIBERSAM, Spain
| | - Josep Maria Haro
- Unitat de Recerca, Parc Sanitari Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, Spain; CIBERSAM, Spain
| | - Judith Usall
- Unitat de Recerca, Parc Sanitari Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, Spain; CIBERSAM, Spain
| | - Miriam Vilaplana
- Unitat de Recerca, Parc Sanitari Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, Spain; CIBERSAM, Spain
| | - Susana Ochoa
- Unitat de Recerca, Parc Sanitari Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, Spain; CIBERSAM, Spain
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Processing speed and working memory span: their differential role in superficial and deep memory processes in schizophrenia. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2011; 17:485-93. [PMID: 21382220 DOI: 10.1017/s1355617711000208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Previous work has suggested that decrement in both processing speed and working memory span plays a role in the memory impairment observed in patients with schizophrenia. We undertook a study to examine simultaneously the effect of these two factors. A sample of 49 patients with schizophrenia and 43 healthy controls underwent a battery of verbal and visual memory tasks. Superficial and deep encoding memory measures were tallied. We conducted regression analyses on the various memory measures, using processing speed and working memory span as independent variables. In the patient group, processing speed was a significant predictor of superficial and deep memory measures in verbal and visual memory. Working memory span was an additional significant predictor of the deep memory measures only. Regression analyses involving all participants revealed that the effect of diagnosis on all the deep encoding memory measures was reduced to non-significance when processing speed was entered in the regression. Decreased processing speed is involved in verbal and visual memory deficit in patients, whether the task require superficial or deep encoding. Working memory is involved only insofar as the task requires a certain amount of effort.
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Kravariti E, Morgan K, Fearon P, Zanelli JW, Lappin JM, Dazzan P, Morgan C, Doody GA, Harrison G, Jones PB, Murray RM, Reichenberg A. Neuropsychological functioning in first-episode schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 2009; 195:336-45. [PMID: 19794203 DOI: 10.1192/bjp.bp.108.055590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Identifying neurocognitive subtypes in schizophrenia may help establish neurobiologically meaningful subtypes of the disorder, but is frequently confounded by differences in intellectual function between individuals with schizophrenia and controls. AIMS To examine neuropsychological performance in individuals with epidemiologically based, first-onset schizophrenia and intellectually matched controls. METHOD Using standard IQ and reading tests, we examined the proportions of 101 people with epidemiologically derived, first-onset schizophrenia/schizoaffective disorder and 317 community controls, falling into three a priori defined intellectual categories: 'stable good', 'deteriorated poor' and 'stable poor'. Neuropsychological function was compared between intellectually matched participants with schizophrenia and control subgroups. RESULTS Multiple deficits in executive function, processing speed and verbal memory, but not visual/spatial perception/memory, were detected in all participant groups with schizophrenia compared with controls. The average effect size across the affected domains ranged from small to medium to large in the stable good, deteriorated poor and stable poor subgroups of participants with schizophrenia, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Compared with intellectually matched controls, people with epidemiologically derived, first-onset schizophrenia/schizoaffective disorder show multiple deficits in executive function, processing speed and verbal memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugenia Kravariti
- Department of Psychiatry, NIHR Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London.
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