Surprising flexibility of leader RNA determinants for r-protein L4-mediated transcription termination in the Escherichia coil S10 operon

σ28-dependent small RNA regulation of flagella biosynthesis

Flagella are important for bacterial motility as well as for pathogenesis. Synthesis of these structures is energy intensive and, while extensive transcriptional regulation has been described, little is known about the posttranscriptional regulation. Small RNAs (sRNAs) are widespread posttranscriptional regulators, most base pairing with mRNAs to affect their stability and/or translation. Here, we describe four UTR-derived sRNAs (UhpU, MotR, FliX and FlgO) whose expression is controlled by the flagella sigma factor σ28 (fliA) in Escherichia coli. Interestingly, the four sRNAs have varied effects on flagellin protein levels, flagella number and cell motility. UhpU, corresponding to the 3´ UTR of a metabolic gene, likely has hundreds of targets including a transcriptional regulator at the top flagella regulatory cascade connecting metabolism and flagella synthesis. Unlike most sRNAs, MotR and FliX base pair within the coding sequences of target mRNAs and act on ribosomal protein mRNAs connecting ribosome production and flagella synthesis. The study shows how sRNA-mediated regulation can overlay a complex network enabling nuanced control of flagella synthesis.

Transcription complexes as RNA chaperones

To exert their functions, RNAs adopt diverse structures, ranging from simple secondary to complex tertiary and quaternary folds. In vivo, RNA folding starts with RNA transcription, and a wide variety of processes are coupled to co-transcriptional RNA folding events, including the regulation of fundamental transcription dynamics, gene regulation by mechanisms like attenuation, RNA processing or ribonucleoprotein particle formation. While co-transcriptional RNA folding and associated co-transcriptional processes are by now well accepted as pervasive regulatory principles in all organisms, investigations into the role of the transcription machinery in co-transcriptional folding processes have so far largely focused on effects of the order in which RNA regions are produced and of transcription kinetics. Recent structural and structure-guided functional analyses of bacterial transcription complexes increasingly point to an additional role of RNA polymerase and associated transcription factors in supporting co-transcriptional RNA folding by fostering or preventing strategic contacts to the nascent transcripts. In general, the results support the view that transcription complexes can act as RNA chaperones, a function that has been suggested over 30 years ago. Here, we discuss transcription complexes as RNA chaperones based on recent examples from bacterial transcription.

Posttranscriptional Regulation of tnaA by Protein-RNA Interaction Mediated by Ribosomal Protein L4 in Escherichia coli

Some ribosomal proteins have extraribosomal functions in addition to ribosome translation function. The extraribosomal functions of several r-proteins control operon expression by binding to own-operon transcripts. Previously, we discovered a posttranscriptional, RNase E-dependent regulatory role for r-protein L4 in the stabilization of stress-responsive transcripts. Here, we found an additional extraribosomal function for L4 in regulating the tna operon by L4-intergenic spacer mRNA interactions. L4 binds to the transcribed spacer RNA between tnaC and tnaA and alters the structural conformation of the spacer RNA, thereby reducing the translation of TnaA. Our study establishes a previously unknown L4-mediated mechanism for regulating gene expression, suggesting that bacterial cells have multiple strategies for controlling levels of tryptophanase in response to varied cell growth conditions.

Escherichia coli ribosomal protein (r-protein) L4 has extraribosomal biological functions. Previously, we described L4 as inhibiting RNase E activity through protein-protein interactions. Here, we report that from stabilized transcripts regulated by L4-RNase E, mRNA levels of tnaA (encoding tryptophanase from the tnaCAB operon) increased upon ectopic L4 expression, whereas TnaA protein levels decreased. However, at nonpermissive temperatures (to inactivate RNase E), tnaA mRNA and protein levels both increased in an rne temperature-sensitive [rne(Ts)] mutant strain. Thus, L4 protein fine-tunes TnaA protein levels independently of its inhibition of RNase E. We demonstrate that ectopically expressed L4 binds with transcribed spacer RNA between tnaC and tnaA and downregulates TnaA translation. We found that deletion of the 5′ or 3′ half of the spacer compared to the wild type resulted in a similar reduction in TnaA translation in the presence of L4. In vitro binding of L4 to the tnaC-tnaA transcribed spacer RNA results in changes to its secondary structure. We reveal that during early stationary-phase bacterial growth, steady-state levels of tnaA mRNA increased but TnaA protein levels decreased. We further confirm that endogenous L4 binds to tnaC-tnaA transcribed spacer RNA in cells at early stationary phase. Our results reveal the novel function of L4 in fine-tuning TnaA protein levels during cell growth and demonstrate that r-protein L4 acts as a translation regulator outside the ribosome and its own operon.

IMPORTANCE Some ribosomal proteins have extraribosomal functions in addition to ribosome translation function. The extraribosomal functions of several r-proteins control operon expression by binding to own-operon transcripts. Previously, we discovered a posttranscriptional, RNase E-dependent regulatory role for r-protein L4 in the stabilization of stress-responsive transcripts. Here, we found an additional extraribosomal function for L4 in regulating the tna operon by L4-intergenic spacer mRNA interactions. L4 binds to the transcribed spacer RNA between tnaC and tnaA and alters the structural conformation of the spacer RNA, thereby reducing the translation of TnaA. Our study establishes a previously unknown L4-mediated mechanism for regulating gene expression, suggesting that bacterial cells have multiple strategies for controlling levels of tryptophanase in response to varied cell growth conditions.

Most RNAs regulating ribosomal protein biosynthesis in Escherichia coli are narrowly distributed to Gammaproteobacteria

In Escherichia coli, 12 distinct RNA structures within the transcripts encoding ribosomal proteins interact with specific ribosomal proteins to allow autogenous regulation of expression from large multi-gene operons, thus coordinating ribosomal protein biosynthesis across multiple operons. However, these RNA structures are typically not represented in the RNA Families Database or annotated in genomic sequences databases, and their phylogenetic distribution is largely unknown. To investigate the extent to which these RNA structures are conserved across eubacterial phyla, we created multiple sequence alignments representing 10 of these messenger RNA (mRNA) structures in E. coli. We find that while three RNA structures are widely distributed across many phyla of bacteria, seven of the RNAs are narrowly distributed to a few orders of Gammaproteobacteria. To experimentally validate our computational predictions, we biochemically confirmed dual L1-binding sites identified in many Firmicute species. This work reveals that RNA-based regulation of ribosomal protein biosynthesis is used in nearly all eubacterial phyla, but the specific RNA structures that regulate ribosomal protein biosynthesis in E. coli are narrowly distributed. These results highlight the limits of our knowledge regarding ribosomal protein biosynthesis regulation outside of E. coli, and the potential for alternative RNA structures responsible for regulating ribosomal proteins in other eubacteria.

Ribosomal protein L20 controls expression of the Bacillus subtilis infC operon via a transcription attenuation mechanism

In contrast to Escherichia coli no molecular mechanism controlling the biosynthesis of ribosomal proteins has been elucidated in Gram-positive organisms. Here we show that the expression of the Bacillus subtilis infC-rpmI-rplT operon encoding translation factor IF3 and the ribosomal proteins L35 and L20 is autoregulated by a complex transcription attenuation mechanism. It implicates a 200-bp leader region upstream of infC which contains two conserved regulatory elements, one of which can act as a transcription terminator. Using in vitro and in vivo approaches we show that expression of the operon is regulated at the level of transcription elongation by a change in the structure of the leader mRNA which depends upon the presence of ribosomal protein L20. L20 binds to a phylogenetically conserved domain and provokes premature transcription termination at the leader terminator. Footprint and toeprint experiments support a regulatory model involving molecular mimicry between the L20-binding sites on 23S rRNA and the mRNA. Our data suggest that Nomura's model of ribosomal protein biosynthesis based on autogenous control and molecular mimicry is also valid in Gram-positive organisms.

The extended loops of ribosomal proteins L4 and L22 are not required for ribosome assembly or L4-mediated autogenous control

Ribosomal proteins L4 and L22 both have a globular domain that sits on the surface of the large ribosomal subunit and an extended loop that penetrates its core. The tips of both loops contribute to the lining of the peptide exit tunnel and have been implicated in a gating mechanism that might regulate the exit of nascent peptides. Also, the extensions of L4 and L22 contact multiple domains of 23S rRNA, suggesting they might facilitate rRNA folding during ribosome assembly. To learn more about the roles of these extensions, we constructed derivatives of both proteins that lack most of their extended loops. Our analysis of ribosomes carrying L4 or L22 deletion proteins did not detect any significant difference in their sedimentation property or polysome distribution. Also, the role of L4 in autogenous control was not affected. We conclude that these extensions are not required for ribosome assembly or for L4-mediated autogenous control of the S10 operon.

RNA-structural mimicry in Escherichia coli ribosomal protein L4-dependent regulation of the S10 operon

Ribosomal protein L4 regulates the 11-gene S10 operon in Escherichia coli by acting, in concert with transcription factor NusA, to cause premature transcription termination at a Rho-independent termination site in the leader sequence. This process presumably involves L4 interaction with the leader mRNA. Here, we report direct, specific, and independent binding of ribosomal protein L4 to the S10 mRNA leader in vitro. Most of the binding energy is contributed by a small hairpin structure within the leader region, but a 64-nucleotide sequence is required for the bona fide interaction. Binding to the S10 leader mRNA is competed by the 23 S rRNA L4 binding site. Although the secondary structures of the mRNA and rRNA binding sites appear different, phosphorothioate footprinting of the L4-RNA complexes reveals close structural similarity in three dimensions. Mutational analysis of the mRNA binding site is compatible with the structural model. In vitro binding of L4 induces structural changes of the S10 leader RNA, providing a first clue for how protein L4 may provoke transcription termination.