1
|
Romano PS, Akematsu T, Besteiro S, Bindschedler A, Carruthers VB, Chahine Z, Coppens I, Descoteaux A, Alberto Duque TL, He CY, Heussler V, Le Roch KG, Li FJ, de Menezes JPB, Menna-Barreto RFS, Mottram JC, Schmuckli-Maurer J, Turk B, Tavares Veras PS, Salassa BN, Vanrell MC. Autophagy in protists and their hosts: When, how and why? AUTOPHAGY REPORTS 2023; 2:2149211. [PMID: 37064813 PMCID: PMC10104450 DOI: 10.1080/27694127.2022.2149211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Abstract
Pathogenic protists are a group of organisms responsible for causing a variety of human diseases including malaria, sleeping sickness, Chagas disease, leishmaniasis, and toxoplasmosis, among others. These diseases, which affect more than one billion people globally, mainly the poorest populations, are characterized by severe chronic stages and the lack of effective antiparasitic treatment. Parasitic protists display complex life-cycles and go through different cellular transformations in order to adapt to the different hosts they live in. Autophagy, a highly conserved cellular degradation process, has emerged as a key mechanism required for these differentiation processes, as well as other functions that are crucial to parasite fitness. In contrast to yeasts and mammals, protist autophagy is characterized by a modest number of conserved autophagy-related proteins (ATGs) that, even though, can drive the autophagosome formation and degradation. In addition, during their intracellular cycle, the interaction of these pathogens with the host autophagy system plays a crucial role resulting in a beneficial or harmful effect that is important for the outcome of the infection. In this review, we summarize the current state of knowledge on autophagy and other related mechanisms in pathogenic protists and their hosts. We sought to emphasize when, how, and why this process takes place, and the effects it may have on the parasitic cycle. A better understanding of the significance of autophagy for the protist life-cycle will potentially be helpful to design novel anti-parasitic strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Silvia Romano
- Laboratorio de Biología de Trypanosoma cruzi y de la célula hospedadora. Instituto de Histología y Embriología de Mendoza. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. (IHEM-CONICET-UNCUYO). Facultad de Ciencias Médicas. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Av. Libertador 80 (5500), Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Takahiko Akematsu
- Department of Biosciences, College of Humanities and Sciences, Nihon University, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | | | - Vern B Carruthers
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Zeinab Chahine
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Isabelle Coppens
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology. Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology. Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute. Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health. Baltimore 21205, MD, USA
| | - Albert Descoteaux
- Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, Institut national de la recherche scientifique, Laval, QC
| | - Thabata Lopes Alberto Duque
- Autophagy Inflammation and Metabolism Center, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Cynthia Y He
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Volker Heussler
- Institute of Cell Biology.University of Bern. Baltzerstr. 4 3012 Bern
| | - Karine G Le Roch
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Feng-Jun Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | | | | | - Jeremy C Mottram
- York Biomedical Research Institute, Department of Biology, University of York, York, UK
| | | | - Boris Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jožef Stefan Institute, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Patricia Sampaio Tavares Veras
- Laboratory of Host-Parasite Interaction and Epidemiology, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Fiocruz-Bahia
- National Institute of Science and Technology of Tropical Diseases - National Council for Scientific Research and Development (CNPq)
| | - Betiana Nebai Salassa
- Laboratorio de Biología de Trypanosoma cruzi y de la célula hospedadora. Instituto de Histología y Embriología de Mendoza. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. (IHEM-CONICET-UNCUYO). Facultad de Ciencias Médicas. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Av. Libertador 80 (5500), Mendoza, Argentina
| | - María Cristina Vanrell
- Laboratorio de Biología de Trypanosoma cruzi y de la célula hospedadora. Instituto de Histología y Embriología de Mendoza. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. (IHEM-CONICET-UNCUYO). Facultad de Ciencias Médicas. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Av. Libertador 80 (5500), Mendoza, Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Pedra-Rezende Y, Macedo IS, Midlej V, Mariante RM, Menna-Barreto RFS. Different Drugs, Same End: Ultrastructural Hallmarks of Autophagy in Pathogenic Protozoa. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:856686. [PMID: 35422792 PMCID: PMC9002357 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.856686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Protozoan parasites interact with a wide variety of organisms ranging from bacteria to humans, representing one of the most common causes of parasitic diseases and an important public health problem affecting hundreds of millions of people worldwide. The current treatment for these parasitic diseases remains unsatisfactory and, in some cases, very limited. Treatment limitations together with the increased resistance of the pathogens represent a challenge for the improvement of the patient’s quality of life. The continuous search for alternative preclinical drugs is mandatory, but the mechanisms of action of several of these compounds have not been described. Electron microscopy is a powerful tool for the identification of drug targets in almost all cellular models. Interestingly, ultrastructural analysis showed that several classes of antiparasitic compounds induced similar autophagic phenotypes in trypanosomatids, trichomonadids, and apicomplexan parasites as well as in Giardia intestinalis and Entamoeba spp. with the presence of an increased number of autophagosomes as well as remarkable endoplasmic reticulum profiles surrounding different organelles. Autophagy is a physiological process of eukaryotes that maintains homeostasis by the self-digestion of nonfunctional organelles and/or macromolecules, limiting redundant and damaged cellular components. Here, we focus on protozoan autophagy to subvert drug effects, discussing its importance for successful chemotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yasmin Pedra-Rezende
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Isabela S Macedo
- Laboratório de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Victor Midlej
- Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Rafael M Mariante
- Laboratório de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ghartey-Kwansah G, Aboagye B, Adu-Nti F, Opoku YK, Abu EK. Clearing or subverting the enemy: Role of autophagy in protozoan infections. Life Sci 2020; 247:117453. [PMID: 32088215 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.117453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The protozoan parasites are evolutionarily divergent, unicellular eukaryotic pathogens representing one of the essential sources of parasitic diseases. These parasites significantly affect the economy and cause public health burdens globally. Protozoan parasites share many cellular features and pathways with their respective host cells. This includes autophagy, a process responsible for self-degradation of the cell's components. There is conservation of the central structural and functional machinery for autophagy in most of the eukaryotic phyla, however, Plasmodium and Toxoplasma possess a decreased number of recognizable autophagy-related proteins (ATG). Plasmodium noticeably lacks clear orthologs of the initiating kinase ATG1/ULK1/2, and both Plasmodium and Toxoplasma lack proteins involved in the nucleation of autophagosomes. These organisms have essential apicoplast, a plastid-like non-photosynthetic organelle, which is an adaptation that is used in penetrating the host cell. Furthermore, available evidence suggests that Leishmania, an intracellular protozoan parasite, induces autophagy in macrophages. The autophagic pathway in Trypanosoma cruzi is activated during metacyclogenesis, a process responsible for the infective forms of parasites. Therefore, numerous pathogens have developed strategies to impair the autophagic mechanism in phagocytes. Regulating autophagy is essential to maintain cellular health as adjustments in the autophagy pathway have been linked to the progression of several physiological and pathological conditions in humans. In this review, we report current advances in autophagy in parasites and their host cells, focusing on the ramifications of these studies in the design of potential anti-protozoan therapeutics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- George Ghartey-Kwansah
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana; College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China.
| | - Benjamin Aboagye
- Department of Forensic Sciences, College of Agriculture and Natural Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
| | - Frank Adu-Nti
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China
| | - Yeboah Kwaku Opoku
- Department of Biology Education, Faculty of Science, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana
| | - Emmanuel Kwasi Abu
- Department of Optometry and Vision Science, College of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Villalta F, Rachakonda G. Advances in preclinical approaches to Chagas disease drug discovery. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2019; 14:1161-1174. [PMID: 31411084 PMCID: PMC6779130 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2019.1652593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Chagas disease affects 8-10 million people worldwide, mainly in Latin America. The current therapy for Chagas disease is limited to nifurtimox and benznidazole, which are effective in treating only the acute phase of the disease but with severe side effects. Therefore, there is an unmet need for new drugs and for the exploration of innovative approaches which may lead to the discovery of new effective and safe drugs for its treatment. Areas covered: The authors report and discuss recent approaches including structure-based design that have led to the discovery of new promising small molecule candidates for Chagas disease which affect prime targets that intervene in the sterol pathway of T. cruzi. Other trypanosome targets, phenotypic screening, the use of artificial intelligence and the challenges with Chagas disease drug discovery are also discussed. Expert opinion: The application of recent scientific innovations to the field of Chagas disease have led to the discovery of new promising drug candidates for Chagas disease. Phenotypic screening brought new hits and opportunities for drug discovery. Artificial intelligence also has the potential to accelerate drug discovery in Chagas disease and further research into this is warranted.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Villalta
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Physiology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College , Nashville , TN , USA
| | - Girish Rachakonda
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Physiology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College , Nashville , TN , USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Reigada C, Sayé M, Valera-Vera E, Miranda MR, Pereira CA. Repurposing of terconazole as an anti Trypanosoma cruzi agent. Heliyon 2019; 5:e01947. [PMID: 31211266 PMCID: PMC6562323 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Revised: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is the causative agent of Chagas disease, a parasitic infection endemic in Latin America. Currently there are no effective treatments for the chronic phase of the disease, when most patients are diagnosed, therefore the development of new drugs is a priority area. Several triazoles, used as fungicides, exhibit trypanocidal activity both in vitro and in vivo. The mechanism of action of such drugs, both in fungi and in T. cruzi, relies in the inhibition of ergosterol biosynthesis affecting the cell viability and growth. Among them, terconazole was the first triazole antifungal drug for human use. In this work, the trypanocidal activity of terconazole was evaluated using in vitro assays. In epimastigotes of two parasites strains from different discrete typing units (Y and Dm28c) the calculated IC50 were 25.7 μM and 21.9 μM, respectively. In trypomastigotes and amastigotes (the clinically relevant life-stages of T. cruzi) a higher drug susceptibility was observed with IC50 values of 4.6 μM and 5.9 μM, respectively. Finally, the molecular docking simulations suggest that terconazole inhibits the T. cruzi cytochrome P450 14-α-demethylase, interacting in a similar way that other triazole drugs. Drug repurposing to Chagas disease treatment is one of the recommended approach according to the criterion of international health organizations for their application in neglected diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chantal Reigada
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas A. Lanari, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Melisa Sayé
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas A. Lanari, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Edward Valera-Vera
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas A. Lanari, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mariana R Miranda
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas A. Lanari, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Claudio A Pereira
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas A. Lanari, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Duschak VG. Major Kinds of Drug Targets in Chagas Disease or American Trypanosomiasis. Curr Drug Targets 2019; 20:1203-1216. [PMID: 31020939 DOI: 10.2174/1389450120666190423160804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2019] [Revised: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
American Trypanosomiasis, a parasitic infection commonly named Chagas disease, affects millions of people all over Latin American countries. Presently, the World Health Organization (WHO) predicts that the number of international infected individuals extends to 7 to 8 million, assuming that more than 10,000 deaths occur annually. The transmission of the etiologic agent, Trypanosoma cruzi, through people migrating to non-endemic world nations makes it an emergent disease. The best promising targets for trypanocidal drugs may be classified into three main groups: Group I includes the main molecular targets that are considered among specific enzymes involved in the essential processes for parasite survival, principally Cruzipain, the major antigenic parasite cysteine proteinase. Group II involves biological pathways and their key specific enzymes, such as Sterol biosynthesis pathway, among others, specific antioxidant defense mechanisms, and bioenergetics ones. Group III includes the atypical organelles /structures present in the parasite relevant clinical forms, which are absent or considerably different from those present in mammals and biological processes related to them. These can be considered potential targets to develop drugs with extra effectiveness and fewer secondary effects than the currently used therapeutics. An improved distinction between the host and the parasite targets will help fight against this neglected disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vilma G Duschak
- National Council of Scientific and Technical Reasearch (CONICET) Researcher, Area of Protein Biochemistry and Parasite Glycobiology, Research Department, National Institute of Parasitology (INP), "Dr. Mario Fatala Chaben", ANLIS-Malbran, National Health Secretary, Av. Paseo Colon 568, Lab 506, Ciudad Autonoma de Buenos Aires (1063), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Osorio-Méndez JF, Cevallos AM. Discovery and Genetic Validation of Chemotherapeutic Targets for Chagas' Disease. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 8:439. [PMID: 30666299 PMCID: PMC6330712 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
There is an urgent need to develop new treatments for Chagas' disease. To identify drug targets, it is important to understand the basic biology of Trypanosoma cruzi, in particular with respect to the biological pathways or proteins that are essential for its survival within the host. This review provides a streamlined approach for identifying drug targets using freely available chemogenetic databases and outlines the relevant characteristics of an ideal chemotherapeutic target. Among those are their essentiality, druggability, availability of structural information, and selectivity. At the moment only 16 genes have been found as essential by gene disruption in T. cruzi. At the TDR Targets database, a chemogenomics resource for neglected diseases, information about published structures for these genes was only found for three of these genes, and annotation of validated inhibitors was found in two. These inhibitors have activity against the parasitic stages present in the host. We then analyzed three of the pathways that are considered promising in the search for new targets: (1) Ergosterol biosynthesis, (2) Resistance to oxidative stress, (3) Synthesis of surface glycoconjugates. We have annotated all the genes that participate in them, identified those that are considered as druggable, and incorporated evidence from either Trypanosoma brucei, and Leishmania spp. that supports the hypothesis that these pathways are essential for T. cruzi survival.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juan Felipe Osorio-Méndez
- Laboratorio de Microbiología y Biología Molecular, Programa de Medicina, Corporación Universitaria Empresarial Alexander von Humboldt, Armenia, Colombia.,Grupo de Estudio en Parasitología Molecular, Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad del Quindío, Armenia, Colombia
| | - Ana María Cevallos
- Departamento de Biología Molecular y Biotecnología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Abstract
Autophagy is a well-conserved process of self-digestion of intracellular components. T. cruzi is a protozoan parasite with a complex life-cycle that involves insect vectors and mammalian hosts. Like other eukaryotic organisms, T. cruzi possesses an autophagic pathway that is activated during metacyclogenesis, the process that generates the infective forms of parasites. In addition, it has been demonstrated that mammalian autophagy has a role during host cell invasion by T. cruzi, and that T. cruzi can modulate this process to its own benefit. This review describes the latest findings concerning the participation of autophagy in both the T. cruzi differentiation processes and during the interaction of parasites within the host cells. Data to date suggest parasite autophagy is important for parasite survival and differentiation, which offers interesting prospects for therapeutic strategies. Additionally, the interruption of mammalian autophagy reduces the parasite infectivity, interfering with the intracellular cycle of T. cruzi inside the host. However, the impact on other stages of development, such as the intracellular replication of parasites is still not clearly understood. Further studies in this matter are necessaries to define the integral effect of autophagy on T. cruzi infection with both in vitro and in vivo approaches.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Betiana Nebaí Salassa
- a Laboratorio de Biología de Trypanosoma cruzi y la célula hospedadora, Instituto de Histología y Embriología (IHEM) "Dr. Mario H. Burgos" CONICET , Universidad Nacional de Cuyo , Mendoza , Argentina.,b Facultad de Odontología , Universidad Nacional de Cuyo , Mendoza , Argentina
| | - Patricia Silvia Romano
- a Laboratorio de Biología de Trypanosoma cruzi y la célula hospedadora, Instituto de Histología y Embriología (IHEM) "Dr. Mario H. Burgos" CONICET , Universidad Nacional de Cuyo , Mendoza , Argentina.,c Facultad de Ciencias Médicas , Universidad Nacional de Cuyo , Mendoza , Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Effects of (1 E,4 E)-2-Methyl-1,5-bis(4-nitrophenyl)penta-1,4-dien-3-one on Trypanosoma cruzi and Its Combinational Effect with Benznidazole, Ketoconazole, or Fluconazole. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 2017:7254193. [PMID: 28620619 PMCID: PMC5460392 DOI: 10.1155/2017/7254193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Revised: 11/25/2016] [Accepted: 01/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
This study reports the activity induced by (1E,4E)-2-methyl-1,5-bis(4-nitrophenyl)penta-1,4-dien-3-one (A3K2A3) against Trypanosoma cruzi. This compound showed trypanocidal activity against the multiplicative epimastigote and amastigote forms of this protozoan, with IC50 values of 1.99 ± 0.17 and 1.20 ± 0.16 μM, respectively, and EC50 value of 15.57 ± 0.34 μM against trypomastigotes. The combination of A3K2A3 with benznidazole or ketoconazole demonstrated strong synergism, increasing effectiveness against trypomastigotes or epimastigotes of T. cruzi. In addition, the drug combination of A3K2A3 with benznidazole or ketoconazole on LLCMK2 cells demonstrated an antagonist effect, which resulted in greater protection of the cells from drug damage. The combination of the compound with fluconazole was not effective. Transmission and scanning electron micrographs showed changes on parasites, mainly in the cytoplasmatic membrane, nucleus, mitochondrion, and Golgi complex, and a large increase in the number of autophagosome-like structures and lipid-storage bodies, accompanied by volume reduction and rounding of the parasite. A3K2A3 might be a promising compound against T. cruzi.
Collapse
|
10
|
Genetic profiling of the isoprenoid and sterol biosynthesis pathway genes of Trypanosoma cruzi. PLoS One 2014; 9:e96762. [PMID: 24828104 PMCID: PMC4020770 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0096762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2014] [Accepted: 04/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
In Trypanosoma cruzi the isoprenoid and sterol biosynthesis pathways are validated targets for chemotherapeutic intervention. In this work we present a study of the genetic diversity observed in genes from these pathways. Using a number of bioinformatic strategies, we first identified genes that were missing and/or were truncated in the T. cruzi genome. Based on this analysis we obtained the complete sequence of the ortholog of the yeast ERG26 gene and identified a non-orthologous homolog of the yeast ERG25 gene (sterol methyl oxidase, SMO), and we propose that the orthologs of ERG25 have been lost in trypanosomes (but not in Leishmanias). Next, starting from a set of 16 T. cruzi strains representative of all extant evolutionary lineages, we amplified and sequenced ∼24 Kbp from 22 genes, identifying a total of 975 SNPs or fixed differences, of which 28% represent non-synonymous changes. We observed genes with a density of substitutions ranging from those close to the average (∼2.5/100 bp) to some showing a high number of changes (11.4/100 bp, for the putative lathosterol oxidase gene). All the genes of the pathway are under apparent purifying selection, but genes coding for the sterol C14-demethylase, the HMG-CoA synthase, and the HMG-CoA reductase have the lowest density of missense SNPs in the panel. Other genes (TcPMK, TcSMO-like) have a relatively high density of non-synonymous SNPs (2.5 and 1.9 every 100 bp, respectively). However, none of the non-synonymous changes identified affect a catalytic or ligand binding site residue. A comparative analysis of the corresponding genes from African trypanosomes and Leishmania shows similar levels of apparent selection for each gene. This information will be essential for future drug development studies focused on this pathway.
Collapse
|
11
|
Veiga-Santos P, Desoti VC, Miranda N, Ueda-Nakamura T, Dias-Filho BP, Silva SO, Cortez DAG, de Mello JCP, Nakamura CV. The natural compounds piperovatine and piperlonguminine induce autophagic cell death on Trypanosoma cruzi. Acta Trop 2013; 125:349-56. [PMID: 23228524 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2012.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2012] [Revised: 11/27/2012] [Accepted: 11/29/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The currently available treatments for Chagas disease show limited therapeutic potential and are associated with serious side effects. Our group has been attempting to find alternative drugs isolated from natural products as a potential source of pharmacological agents against Trypanosoma cruzi. Here, we demonstrate the antitrypanosomal activity of the amides piperovatine and piperlonguminine isolated from Piper ovatum against epimastigotes and intracellular amastigotes. We also investigated the mechanisms of action of these compounds on extracellular amastigote and epimastigote forms of T. cruzi. These amides showed low toxicity to LLCMK(2) mammalian cells. By using transmission and scanning electron microscopy, we observed that the compounds caused severe alterations in T. cruzi. These alterations were mainly located in plasma membrane and mitochondria. Furthermore, the study of treated parasites labeled with Rh123, PI and MDC corroborate with our TEM data. These mitochondrial dysfunctions induced by the amides might trigger biochemical alterations that lead to cell death. Altogether, our data evidence a possible autophagic process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Phercyles Veiga-Santos
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Laboratório de Inovação Tecnológica no Desenvolvimento de Fármacos e Cosméticos, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Paraná, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Kessler RL, Soares MJ, Probst CM, Krieger MA. Trypanosoma cruzi response to sterol biosynthesis inhibitors: morphophysiological alterations leading to cell death. PLoS One 2013; 8:e55497. [PMID: 23383204 PMCID: PMC3561218 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0055497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2012] [Accepted: 12/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi displays similarities to fungi in terms of its sterol lipid biosynthesis, as ergosterol and other 24-alkylated sterols are its principal endogenous sterols. The sterol pathway is thus a potential drug target for the treatment of Chagas disease. We describe here a comparative study of the growth inhibition, ultrastructural and physiological changes leading to the death of T. cruzi cells following treatment with the sterol biosynthesis inhibitors (SBIs) ketoconazole and lovastatin. We first calculated the drug concentration inhibiting epimastigote growth by 50% (EC(50)/72 h) or killing all cells within 24 hours (EC(100)/24 h). Incubation with inhibitors at the EC(50)/72 h resulted in interesting morphological changes: intense proliferation of the inner mitochondrial membrane, which was corroborated by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy of the parasites stained with rhodamine 123, and strong swelling of the reservosomes, which was confirmed by acridine orange staining. These changes to the mitochondria and reservosomes may reflect the involvement of these organelles in ergosterol biosynthesis or the progressive autophagic process culminating in cell lysis after 6 to 7 days of treatment with SBIs at the EC(50)/72 h. By contrast, treatment with SBIs at the EC(100)/24 h resulted in rapid cell death with a necrotic phenotype: time-dependent cytosolic calcium overload, mitochondrial depolarization and reservosome membrane permeabilization (RMP), culminating in cell lysis after a few hours of drug exposure. We provide the first demonstration that RMP constitutes the "point of no return" in the cell death cascade, and propose a model for the necrotic cell death of T. cruzi. Thus, SBIs trigger cell death by different mechanisms, depending on the dose used, in T. cruzi. These findings shed new light on ergosterol biosynthesis and the mechanisms of programmed cell death in this ancient protozoan parasite.
Collapse
|
13
|
Veiga-Santos P, Barrias ES, Santos JFC, de Barros Moreira TL, de Carvalho TMU, Urbina JA, de Souza W. Effects of amiodarone and posaconazole on the growth and ultrastructure of Trypanosoma cruzi. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2012; 40:61-71. [PMID: 22591838 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2012.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2011] [Revised: 03/10/2012] [Accepted: 03/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The antifungal posaconazole (PCZ) is the most advanced candidate for the treatment of Chagas disease, having potent anti-Trypanosoma cruzi activity in vitro and in animal models of the disease as well as an excellent safety profile in humans. Amiodarone (AMD) is the antiarrhythmic drug most frequently used for the symptomatic treatment of chronic Chagas disease patients, but it also has specific anti-T. cruzi activity. When used in combination, these drugs exhibit potent synergistic activity against the parasite. In the present work, electron microscopy was used to analyse the effects of both compounds, acting individually or in combination, against T. cruzi. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC(50)) against epimastigote and amastigote forms was 25 nM and 1.0 nM for PCZ and 8 μM and 5.6 μM for AMD, respectively. The antiproliferative synergism of the drugs (fractional inhibitory concentration<0.5) was confirmed and the ultrastructural alterations in the parasite induced by them, leading to cell death, were characterised using electron microscopy. These alterations include intense wrinkling of the protozoan surface, swelling of the mitochondrion, shedding of plasma membrane vesicles, the appearance of vesicles in the flagellar pocket, alterations in the kinetoplast, disorganisation of the Golgi complex, accumulation of lipid inclusions in the cytoplasm, and the formation of autophagic vacuoles, the latter confirmed by immunofluorescence microscopy. These findings indicate that the association of PCZ and AMD may constitute an effective anti-T. cruzi therapy with low side effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Phercyles Veiga-Santos
- Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, CCS, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Bloco G, Ilha do Fundão, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 21941-902, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Cerecetto H, González M. Synthetic Medicinal Chemistry in Chagas' Disease: Compounds at The Final Stage of "Hit-To-Lead" Phase. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2010; 3:810-838. [PMID: 27713281 PMCID: PMC4034012 DOI: 10.3390/ph3040810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2010] [Revised: 03/15/2010] [Accepted: 03/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas' disease, or American trypanosomosiasis, has been the most relevant illness produced by protozoa in Latin America. Synthetic medicinal chemistry efforts have provided an extensive number of chemodiverse hits at the "active-to-hit" stage. However, only a more limited number of these have been studied in vivo in models of Chagas' disease. Herein, we survey some of the cantidates able to surpass the "hit-to-lead" stage discussing their limitations or merit to enter in clinical trials in the short term.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Cerecetto
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Química, Universidad de la República, Iguá 4225, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay.
| | - Mercedes González
- Laboratorio de Química Orgánica, Instituto de Química Biológica-Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Iguá 4225, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Cabral MMO, Barbosa-Filho JM, Maia GLA, Chaves MCO, Braga MV, De Souza W, Soares ROA. Neolignans from plants in northeastern Brazil (Lauraceae) with activity against Trypanosoma cruzi. Exp Parasitol 2009; 124:319-24. [PMID: 19944690 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2009.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2009] [Revised: 10/20/2009] [Accepted: 11/17/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is the ethiological agent for Chagas disease in Latin America. This study aimed to test the trypanocidal effect of licarin A and burchellin isolated from plants in northeastern Brazil. These neolignans were tested on T. cruzi and on peritoneal macrophages, to evaluate drug toxicity. Epimastigote growth was inhibited in 45% with licarin A and 20% with burchellin with an IC(50)/96 h of 462.7 microM and 756 microM, respectively. Epimastigotes treated with licarin A presented swollen mitochondria and disorganized mitochondrial cristae, kDNA and Golgi complex. When treated with burchellin, they presented enormous autophagosomes and chromatin disorganization. Licarin A and burchellin were able to induce trypomastigote death with IC(50)/24 h of 960 microM and 520 microM, respectively. Although licarin A presented an IC(50) for trypomastigotes higher than for epimastigotes, both substances acted as therapeutic trypanocidal agents, because they were able to kill parasites without affecting macrophages. Due to our results, burchellin and licarin A need to be further analysed to observe if they may be used as alternative blood additive prophylaxis against Chagas disease, since it has been established that blood transfusion is an important mechanism in the transmission process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M M O Cabral
- Laboratório de Diptera, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, FIOCRUZ, Av. Brasil, 4365, 21045-900 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Balliano G, Dehmlow H, Oliaro-Bosso S, Scaldaferri M, Taramino S, Viola F, Caron G, Aebi J, Ackermann J. Oxidosqualene cyclase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Trypanosoma cruzi, Pneumocystis carinii and Arabidopsis thaliana expressed in yeast: A model for the development of novel antiparasitic agents. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2009; 19:718-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2008.12.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2008] [Revised: 12/05/2008] [Accepted: 12/07/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
17
|
The toxic effects of piperine against Trypanosoma cruzi: ultrastructural alterations and reversible blockage of cytokinesis in epimastigote forms. Parasitol Res 2008; 102:1059-67. [PMID: 18224488 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-008-0876-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2007] [Accepted: 01/03/2008] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In a previous work, we have investigated the effects of piperine and several of its chemical derivatives on the proliferation of the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. It was observed that natural piperine is more active against intracellular amastigotes than axenically grown epimastigotes with IC50 values of 4.91 and 7.36 microM, respectively. Despite its superior trypanocidal activity against the intracellular amastigotes, here, we show that piperine did not enhance microbiocidal characteristics of murine peritoneal macrophages (Mø) based on nitric oxide production. As shown by light and electron microscopy analysis, epimastigotes treated with sublethal concentrations of piperine presented a reversible cell cycle arrestment and become round shaped, with swelling of the mitochondrion matrix and intense intracellular vacuolization with structures displaying complex membrane invaginations. Similar to the effects of exposing epimastigotes to the antitumor and microtubule stabilizer taxol, multiplication of cell organelles such as the flagellum, kinetoplast, and nucleus occurred, but division into daughter cells was impaired. Unlike the effects caused by the anti-microtubular vinca alkaloids vincristine and vinblastine, which also induce cytokinesis arrestment in T. cruzi epimastigotes, piperine did not induce the formation of giant multinucleated cells. The data reinforce the selectivity of the mechanisms of action of piperine against T. cruzi.
Collapse
|
18
|
Maia C, Attias M, Urbina J, Gilbert I, Magaraci F, de Souza W. Azasterols impair Giardia lamblia proliferation and induces encystation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2007; 363:310-6. [PMID: 17870055 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.08.174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2007] [Accepted: 08/23/2007] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The effects of sterol biosynthesis inhibitors on growth and fine structure of Giardia lamblia P1 strain cultures were analyzed. Azasterols demonstrated high efficacy in killing cells. The IC(50) values for 22,26-azasterol and 24(R,S),25-epiminolanosterol were 7muM and 170nM, respectively. Morphological analysis showed that azasterols induced changes in G. lamblia ultrastructure. The most significant alterations were: (a) considerable increase of the size of the peripheral vesicles, which are part of the parasite endosomal-lysosomal system; (b) appearance of autophagosomal structures; and (c) induction of differentiation, followed by an abnormal enlargement of encystation secretory vesicles. We propose that azasterols are effective chemotherapeutic drugs against Giardia lamblia in vitro and may have another target in cells besides sterol biosynthesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Maia
- Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Instituto de Bioquímica Médica, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|