Enhanced reward-facilitating effects of d-amphetamine in rats in the quinpirole model of obsessive-compulsive disorder

Influence of Selective Dopamine Agonist Ropinirole on Conditioned Place Preference and Somatic Signs of Morphine Withdrawal in Rats

The underlying mechanism of dependence and rewarding effects of morphine is imperative to understand. The primary aim of this study was to investigate whether ropinirole D2/3 agonist affects the rewarding and reinforcing properties of morphine-induced conditioned place preference (CPP) and withdrawal syndromes in rats. On day one, the animals were randomly divided to conduct the pre-test. The morphine (10 mg/kg, i.p.) and/or saline was administered on alternate days in an 8-day CPP session. On day 10, 15 min prior to the post-conditioning test (expression), a single dose of ropinirole (1, 2, and 5 mg/kg, i.p.) was given to rats. In extinction session, ropinirole was injected daily, and CPP was extinguished by repeated testing, with intervals of 3 days. Finally, reinstatement was assessed by administering ropinirole (1, 2, and 5 mg/kg) 15 min before the morphine injection. Morphine dependence was developed by administering increasing doses of morphine (10–50 mg/kg, i.p.). To assess withdrawal symptoms, ropinirole (1, 2, and 5 mg/kg) was injected 15 min before naloxone (2 mg/kg, s.c.) administration. The present study confirms that ropinirole attenuates expression and reinstatement of CPP, while it precipitates the extinction of morphine-induced CPP. Naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal symptoms, including wet dog shakes and weight loss, were attenuated although jumping was increased by a single ropinirole injection. Thus, ropinirole was influential in attenuating expression, reducing drug seeking and weakening reinstatement via the dopaminergic system. These findings show that ropinirole might affect neuro-adaptive changes related to dependence.

Distinct alterations in motor & reward seeking behavior are dependent on the gestational age of exposure to LPS-induced maternal immune activation

The dopaminergic system is involved in motivation, reward and the associated motor activities. Mesodiencephalic dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) regulate motivation and reward, whereas those in the substantia nigra (SN) are essential for motor control. Defective VTA dopaminergic transmission has been implicated in schizophrenia, drug addiction and depression whereas dopaminergic neurons in the SN are lost in Parkinson's disease. Maternal immune activation (MIA) leading to in utero inflammation has been proposed to be a risk factor for these disorders, yet it is unclear how this stimulus can lead to the diverse disturbances in dopaminergic-driven behaviors that emerge at different stages of life in affected offspring. Here we report that gestational age is a critical determinant of the subsequent alterations in dopaminergic-driven behavior in rat offspring exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced MIA. Behavioral analysis revealed that MIA on gestational day 16 but not gestational day 12 resulted in biphasic impairments in motor behavior. Specifically, motor impairments were evident in early life, which were resolved by adolescence, but subsequently re-emerged in adulthood. In contrast, reward seeking behaviors were altered in offspring exposed MIA on gestational day 12. These changes were not due to a loss of dopaminergic neurons per se in the postnatal period, suggesting that they reflect functional changes in dopaminergic systems. This highlights that gestational age may be a key determinant of how MIA leads to distinct alterations in dopaminergic-driven behavior across the lifespan of affected offspring.

Chronic administration of the dopamine D2/3 agonist ropinirole invigorates performance of a rodent slot machine task, potentially indicative of less distractible or compulsive-like gambling behaviour

RATIONALE

Whilst dopamine agonist therapies can successfully manage the symptoms of diseases such as Parkinson's disease (PD), fibromyalgia and restless leg syndrome, they can also cause impulse control and addiction disorders such as gambling disorder (GD). These compulsive behaviours seriously undermine the utility of such treatments.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of the study was to model this phenomenon using a rodent slot machine task (rSMT) in order to investigate the neurobiological basis underlying such behavioural changes.

METHODS

Male Long Evans rats were trained to perform the rSMT. The D₂-like agonist ropinirole, or saline, was then delivered continuously for 28 days via osmotic mini-pump. The effects of ropinirole on baseline rSMT performance, as well as extinction and reinstatement sessions, were determined during this time. Brain samples from key frontostriatal regions implicated in GD and PD were then harvested immediately or after a 4-week washout period during which behaviour returned to pre-drug baseline.

RESULTS

Ropinirole invigorated task performance, in that drug treatment resulted in a robust and sustained increase in the number of trials completed. Ex vivo analyses revealed that chronic ropinirole treatment led to a pattern of changes indicative of upregulation within the β-arrestin-AKT-GSK3β intracellular cascade, recently theorised to dominate D₂-mediated signalling under hyperdopaminergic conditions, in the dorsal striatum, rather than the canonical PKA-dependent signalling pathway associated with D₂ receptor activation.

CONCLUSIONS

Such findings provide novel insight into the role of dopamine signalling in mediating compulsive-like gambling behaviour and may inform more directed pharmacotherapies for the treatment of both idiopathic and iatrogenic GD.

Validity of Quinpirole Sensitization Rat Model of OCD: Linking Evidence from Animal and Clinical Studies

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a neuropsychiatric disorder with 1–3% prevalence. OCD is characterized by recurrent thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions). The pathophysiology of OCD remains unclear, stressing the importance of pre-clinical studies. The aim of this article is to critically review a proposed animal model of OCD that is characterized by the induction of compulsive checking and behavioral sensitization to the D2/D3 dopamine agonist quinpirole. Changes in this model have been reported at the level of brain structures, neurotransmitter systems and other neurophysiological aspects. In this review, we consider these alterations in relation to the clinical manifestations in OCD, with the aim to discuss and evaluate axes of validity of this model. Our analysis shows that some axes of validity of quinpirole sensitization model (QSM) are strongly supported by clinical findings, such as behavioral phenomenology or roles of brain structures. Evidence on predictive validity is contradictory and ambiguous. It is concluded that this model is useful in the context of searching for the underlying pathophysiological basis of the disorder because of the relatively strong biological similarities with OCD.

Medial Forebrain Bundle Deep Brain Stimulation has Symptom-specific Anti-depressant Effects in Rats and as Opposed to Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex Stimulation Interacts With the Reward System

BACKGROUND

In recent years, deep brain stimulation (DBS) has emerged as a promising treatment option for patients suffering from treatment-resistant depression (TRD). Several stimulation targets have successfully been tested in clinical settings, including the subgenual cingulum (Cg25) and the medial forebrain bundle (MFB). MFB-DBS has led to remarkable results, surpassing the effect of previous targets in terms of response latency and number of responders. However, the question remains as to which mechanisms underlie this difference.

OBJECTIVE/HYPOTHESIS

The aim of the present study was to thoroughly study the anti-depressant effect of MFB-DBS in the Flinders sensitive line (FSL) rat model of depression as well as to investigate whether MFB-DBS and Cg25-DBS operate through the same neurobiological circuits.

METHODS

FSL and control rats received bilateral high-frequency stimulation to the MFB at the level of the lateral hypothalamus, while being subjected to a variety of depression- and anxiety-related behavioral paradigms. To further compare the effects of MFB-DBS and Cg25-DBS on reward-related behavior, animals were stimulated in either the MFB or ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC, rodent analog to Cg25), while being tested in the intra-cranial self-stimulation paradigm.

RESULTS

A marked symptom-specific anti-depressant effect of MFB-DBS was demonstrated. The ICSS-paradigm revealed that MFB-DBS, as opposed to vmPFC-DBS interacts with the reward system.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that MFB-DBS and Cg25-DBS do not operate via the same neurobiological circuits. This differentiation might be of interest when selecting patients for either Cg25- or MFB-DBS.

The effect of chronic amphetamine treatment on cocaine-induced facilitation of intracranial self-stimulation in rats

RATIONALE

Chronic amphetamine treatment reduces cocaine self-administration in pre-clinical and clinical settings, and amphetamine has been proposed as a candidate medication for treatment of cocaine abuse.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the present study was to investigate whether chronic amphetamine treatment can decrease abuse-related cocaine effects in an assay of intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS).

METHODS

Thirteen adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were equipped with intracranial electrodes targeting the medial forebrain bundle and trained to lever press for pulses of brain stimulation in a "frequency-rate" ICSS procedure. Cocaine (10 mg/kg) was administered before (day 0), during (days 7 and 14), and after (posttreatment days 1 and 3) 2 weeks of continuous treatment with either amphetamine (0.32 mg/kg/h, n = 7) or saline (n = 6) via osmotic pump.

RESULTS

Prior to treatment, cocaine facilitated ICSS in all rats. Saline treatment had no effect on baseline ICSS or cocaine-induced facilitation of ICSS at any time. Conversely, amphetamine produced a sustained though submaximal facilitation of baseline ICSS, and cocaine produced little additional facilitation of ICSS during amphetamine treatment. Termination of amphetamine treatment produced a depression of baseline ICSS and recovery of cocaine-induced facilitation of ICSS.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that chronic amphetamine treatment blunts expression of abuse-related cocaine effects on ICSS in rats.

The dopamine D2/D3 receptor agonist quinpirole increases checking-like behaviour in an operant observing response task with uncertain reinforcement: a novel possible model of OCD

Excessive checking is a common, debilitating symptom of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). In an established rodent model of OCD checking behaviour, quinpirole (dopamine D2/3-receptor agonist) increased checking in open-field tests, indicating dopaminergic modulation of checking-like behaviours. We designed a novel operant paradigm for rats (observing response task (ORT)) to further examine cognitive processes underpinning checking behaviour and clarify how and why checking develops. We investigated i) how quinpirole increases checking, ii) dependence of these effects on D2/3 receptor function (following treatment with D2/3 receptor antagonist sulpiride) and iii) effects of reward uncertainty. In the ORT, rats pressed an 'observing' lever for information about the location of an 'active' lever that provided food reinforcement. High- and low-checkers (defined from baseline observing) received quinpirole (0.5mg/kg, 10 treatments) or vehicle. Parametric task manipulations assessed observing/checking under increasing task demands relating to reinforcement uncertainty (variable response requirement and active-lever location switching). Treatment with sulpiride further probed the pharmacological basis of long-term behavioural changes. Quinpirole selectively increased checking, both functional observing lever presses (OLPs) and non-functional extra OLPs (EOLPs). The increase in OLPs and EOLPs was long-lasting, without further quinpirole administration. Quinpirole did not affect the immediate ability to use information from checking. Vehicle and quinpirole-treated rats (VEH and QNP respectively) were selectively sensitive to different forms of uncertainty. Sulpiride reduced non-functional EOLPs in QNP rats but had no effect on functional OLPs. These data have implications for treatment of compulsive checking in OCD, particularly for serotonin-reuptake-inhibitor treatment-refractory cases, where supplementation with dopamine receptor antagonists may be beneficial.