Astrocyte activation of presynaptic metabotropic glutamate receptors modulates hippocampal inhibitory synaptic transmission

Inhibitory gamma-aminobutyric acidergic neurons in the anterior cingulate cortex participate in the comorbidity of pain and emotion

Pain is often comorbid with emotional disorders such as anxiety and depression. Hyperexcitability of the anterior cingulate cortex has been implicated in pain and pain-related negative emotions that arise from impairments in inhibitory gamma-aminobutyric acid neurotransmission. This review primarily aims to outline the main circuitry (including the input and output connectivity) of the anterior cingulate cortex and classification and functions of different gamma-aminobutyric acidergic neurons; it also describes the neurotransmitters/neuromodulators affecting these neurons, their intercommunication with other neurons, and their importance in mental comorbidities associated with chronic pain disorders. Improving understanding on their role in pain-related mental comorbidities may facilitate the development of more effective treatments for these conditions. However, the mechanisms that regulate gamma-aminobutyric acidergic systems remain elusive. It is also unclear as to whether the mechanisms are presynaptic or postsynaptic. Further exploration of the complexities of this system may reveal new pathways for research and drug development.

Neural Circuitry Polarization in the Spinal Dorsal Horn (SDH): A Novel Form of Dysregulated Circuitry Plasticity during Pain Pathogenesis

Pathological pain emerges from nociceptive system dysfunction, resulting in heightened pain circuit activity. Various forms of circuitry plasticity, such as central sensitization, synaptic plasticity, homeostatic plasticity, and excitation/inhibition balance, contribute to the malfunction of neural circuits during pain pathogenesis. Recently, a new form of plasticity in the spinal dorsal horn (SDH), named neural circuit polarization (NCP), was discovered in pain models induced by HIV-1 gp120 and chronic morphine administration. NCP manifests as an increase in excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) in excitatory neurons and a decrease in EPSCs in inhibitory neurons, presumably facilitating hyperactivation of pain circuits. The expression of NCP is associated with astrogliosis. Ablation of reactive astrocytes or suppression of astrogliosis blocks NCP and, concomitantly, the development of gp120- or morphine-induced pain. In this review, we aim to compare and integrate NCP with other forms of plasticity in pain circuits to improve the understanding of the pathogenic contribution of NCP and its cooperation with other forms of circuitry plasticity during the development of pathological pain.

Essential Role of Astrocytes in Learning and Memory

One of the most biologically relevant functions of astrocytes within the CNS is the regulation of synaptic transmission, i.e., the physiological basis for information transmission between neurons. Changes in the strength of synaptic connections are indeed thought to be the cellular basis of learning and memory. Importantly, astrocytes have been demonstrated to tightly regulate these processes via the release of several gliotransmitters linked to astrocytic calcium activity as well as astrocyte-neuron metabolic coupling. Therefore, astrocytes seem to be integrators of and actors upon learning- and memory-relevant information. In this review, we focus on the role of astrocytes in learning and memory processes. We delineate the recognized inputs and outputs of astrocytes and explore the influence of manipulating astrocytes on behaviour across diverse learning paradigms. We conclude that astrocytes influence learning and memory in various manners. Appropriate astrocytic Ca2+ dynamics are being increasingly identified as central contributors to memory formation and retrieval. In addition, astrocytes regulate brain rhythms essential for cognition, and astrocyte-neuron metabolic cooperation is required for memory consolidation.

Astrocyte coverage of excitatory synapses correlates to measures of synapse structure and function in primary visual cortex

Most excitatory synapses in the mammalian brain are contacted by astrocytes, forming the tripartite synapse. This interface is thought to be critical for glutamate turnover and structural or functional dynamics of synapses. While the degree of synaptic contact of astrocytes is known to vary across brain regions and animal species, the implications of this variability remain unknown. Furthermore, precisely how astrocyte coverage of synapses relates to in vivo functional properties of individual dendritic spines has yet to be investigated. Here, we characterized perisynaptic astrocyte processes (PAPs) contacting synapses of pyramidal neurons of the ferret visual cortex and, using correlative light and electron microscopy, examined their relationship to synaptic strength and to sensory-evoked Ca2+ activity. Nearly all synapses were contacted by PAPs, and most were contacted along the axon-spine interface (ASI). Structurally, we found that the degree of PAP coverage scaled with synapse size and complexity. Functionally, we found that PAP coverage scaled with the selectivity of Ca2+ responses of individual synapses to visual stimuli and, at least for the largest synapses, scaled with the reliability of visual stimuli to evoke postsynaptic Ca2+ events. Our study shows astrocyte coverage is highly correlated with structural properties of excitatory synapses in the visual cortex and implicates astrocytes as a contributor to reliable sensory activation.

The important role of glial transmitters released by astrocytes in Alzheimer's disease: A perspective from dynamical modeling

This paper aims to establish a coupling model of neuronal populations and astrocytes and, on this basis, explore the possible mechanism of electroencephalography (EEG) slowing in Alzheimer's disease (AD) from the viewpoint of dynamical modeling. First and foremost, excitatory and inhibitory time constants are shown to induce the early symptoms of AD. The corresponding dynamic nature is mainly due to changes in the amplitude and frequency of the oscillatory behavior. However, there are also a few cases that can be attributed to the change of the oscillation mode caused by the limit cycle bifurcation and birhythmicity. Then, an improved neural mass model influenced by astrocytes is proposed, considering the important effects of glutamate and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) released by astrocytes on the synaptic transmission process reported in experiments. The results show that a dysfunctional astrocyte disrupts the physiological state, causing three typical EEG slowing phenomena reported clinically: the decreased dominant frequency, the decreased rhythmic activity in the α band, and the increased rhythmic activity in the δ+θ band. In addition, astrocytes may control AD when the effect of ATP on synaptic connections is greater than that of glutamate. The control rate depends on the ratio of the effect of glutamate on excitatory and inhibitory synaptic connections. These modeling results can not only reproduce some experimental and clinical results, but, more importantly, may offer a prediction of some underlying phenomena, helping to inspire the disease mechanisms and therapeutic methods of targeting astrocytes.

Comparative assessment of the effects of DREADDs and endogenously expressed GPCRs in hippocampal astrocytes on synaptic activity and memory

Designer Receptors Exclusively Activated by Designer Drugs (DREADDs) have proven themselves as one of the key in vivo techniques of modern neuroscience, allowing for unprecedented access to cellular manipulations in living animals. With respect to astrocyte research, DREADDs have become a popular method to examine the functional aspects of astrocyte activity, particularly G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR)-mediated intracellular calcium (Ca2+) and cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) dynamics. With this method it has become possible to directly link the physiological aspects of astrocytic function to cognitive processes such as memory. As a result, a multitude of studies have explored the impact of DREADD activation in astrocytes on synaptic activity and memory. However, the emergence of varying results prompts us to reconsider the degree to which DREADDs expressed in astrocytes accurately mimic endogenous GPCR activity. Here we compare the major downstream signaling mechanisms, synaptic, and behavioral effects of stimulating Gq-, Gs-, and Gi-DREADDs in hippocampal astrocytes of adult mice to those of endogenously expressed GPCRs.

Dysregulation of Astrocyte-Neuronal Communication in Alzheimer's Disease

Recent studies implicate astrocytes in Alzheimer's disease (AD); however, their role in pathogenesis is poorly understood. Astrocytes have well-established functions in supportive functions such as extracellular ionic homeostasis, structural support, and neurovascular coupling. However, emerging research on astrocytic function in the healthy brain also indicates their role in regulating synaptic plasticity and neuronal excitability via the release of neuroactive substances named gliotransmitters. Here, we review how this "active" role of astrocytes at synapses could contribute to synaptic and neuronal network dysfunction and cognitive impairment in AD.

The Paradox of Astroglial Ca2 + Signals at the Interface of Excitation and Inhibition

Astroglial networks constitute a non-neuronal communication system in the brain and are acknowledged modulators of synaptic plasticity. A sophisticated set of transmitter receptors in combination with distinct secretion mechanisms enables astrocytes to sense and modulate synaptic transmission. This integrative function evolved around intracellular Ca²⁺ signals, by and large considered as the main indicator of astrocyte activity. Regular brain physiology meticulously relies on the constant reciprocity of excitation and inhibition (E/I). Astrocytes are metabolically, physically, and functionally associated to the E/I convergence. Metabolically, astrocytes provide glutamine, the precursor of both major neurotransmitters governing E/I in the central nervous system (CNS): glutamate and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Perisynaptic astroglial processes are structurally and functionally associated with the respective circuits throughout the CNS. Astonishingly, in astrocytes, glutamatergic as well as GABAergic inputs elicit similar rises in intracellular Ca²⁺ that in turn can trigger the release of glutamate and GABA as well. Paradoxically, as gliotransmitters, these two molecules can thus strengthen, weaken or even reverse the input signal. Therefore, the net impact on neuronal network function is often convoluted and cannot be simply predicted by the nature of the stimulus itself. In this review, we highlight the ambiguity of astrocytes on discriminating and affecting synaptic activity in physiological and pathological state. Indeed, aberrant astroglial Ca²⁺ signaling is a key aspect of pathological conditions exhibiting compromised network excitability, such as epilepsy. Here, we gather recent evidence on the complexity of astroglial Ca²⁺ signals in health and disease, challenging the traditional, neuro-centric concept of segregating E/I, in favor of a non-binary, mutually dependent perspective on glutamatergic and GABAergic transmission.

Astrocytes-The Ultimate Effectors of Long-Range Neuromodulatory Networks?

It was long thought that astrocytes, given their lack of electrical signaling, were not involved in communication with neurons. However, we now know that one astrocyte on average maintains and regulates the extracellular neurotransmitter and potassium levels of more than 140,000 synapses, both excitatory and inhibitory, within their individual domains, and form a syncytium that can propagate calcium waves to affect distant cells via release of “gliotransmitters” such as glutamate, ATP, or adenosine. Neuromodulators can affect signal-to-noise and frequency transmission within cortical circuits by effects on inhibition, allowing for the filtering of relevant vs. irrelevant stimuli. Moreover, synchronized “resting” and desynchronized “activated” brain states are gated by short bursts of high-frequency neuromodulatory activity, highlighting the need for neuromodulation that is robust, rapid, and far-reaching. As many neuromodulators are released in a volume manner where degradation/uptake and the confines of the complex CNS limit diffusion distance, we ask the question—are astrocytes responsible for rapidly extending neuromodulator actions to every synapse? Neuromodulators are known to influence transitions between brain states, leading to control over plasticity, responses to salient stimuli, wakefulness, and sleep. These rapid and wide-spread state transitions demand that neuromodulators can simultaneously influence large and diverse regions in a manner that should be impossible given the limitations of simple diffusion. Intriguingly, astrocytes are ideally situated to amplify/extend neuromodulator effects over large populations of synapses given that each astrocyte can: (1) ensheath a large number of synapses; (2) release gliotransmitters (glutamate/ATP/adenosine) known to affect inhibition; (3) regulate extracellular potassium that can affect excitability and excitation/inhibition balance; and (4) express receptors for all neuromodulators. In this review article, we explore the hypothesis that astrocytes extend and amplify neuromodulatory influences on neuronal networks via alterations in calcium dynamics, the release of gliotransmitters, and potassium homeostasis. Given that neuromodulatory networks are at the core of our sleep-wake cycle and behavioral states, and determine how we interact with our environment, this review article highlights the importance of basic astrocyte function in homeostasis, general cognition, and psychiatric disorders.

Feed-Forward and Feedback Control in Astrocytes for Ca 2+-Based Molecular Communications Nanonetworks

Synaptic plasticity depends on the gliotransmitters' concentration in the synaptic channel. And, an abnormal concentration of gliotransmitters is linked to neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and epilepsy. In this paper, a theoretical investigation of the cause of the abnormal concentration of gliotransmitters and how to achieve its control is presented through a Ca ²⁺-signalling-based molecular communications framework. A feed-forward and feedback control technique is used to manipulate IP ₃ values to stabilize the concentration of Ca ²⁺ inside the astrocytes. The theoretical analysis of the given model aims i) to stabilize the Ca ²⁺ concentration around a particular desired level in order to prevent abnormal gliotransmitters' concentration (extremely high or low concentration can result in neurodegeneration), ii) to improve the molecular communication performance that utilizes Ca ²⁺ signalling, and maintain gliotransmitters' regulation remotely. It shows that the refractory periods from Ca ²⁺ can be maintained to lower the noise propagation resulting in smaller time-slots for bit transmission, which can also improve the delay and gain performances. The proposed approach can potentially lead to novel nanomedicine solutions for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, where a combination of nanotechnology and gene therapy approaches can be used to elicit the regulated Ca ²⁺ signalling in astrocytes, ultimately improving neuronal activity.

Cannabinoid Signaling Recruits Astrocytes to Modulate Presynaptic Function in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

Circadian rhythms are 24-h cycles in physiology regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the brain, where daily cues act on SCN neurons to alter clock timing. Cannabinoid signaling modulates SCN neuronal activity, although the mechanism remains unclear. We propose that neuronal activity generates endocannabinoid release, activating astrocyte Ca²⁺ signaling, which releases adenosine and activates adenosine-1 receptors (A1Rs) on the presynaptic axon terminals, decreasing GABA release. We demonstrated, in mice, that activation of cannabinoid-1 receptors (CB1R) with the agonist WIN 55,212-2 (WIN) reduced the miniature GABA receptor-mediated postsynaptic current (mGPSC) frequency by a mechanism that requires astrocytes and A1R. WIN activated an intracellular Ca²⁺ signaling pathway in astrocytes. Activating this intracellular Ca²⁺ pathway with designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADDs) also decreased the mGPSC frequency and required A1R activation. The frequency of spontaneous Ca²⁺ events, including those induced by depolarization of a postsynaptic SCN neuron, was reduced by blocking CB1R activation with AM251, demonstrating neuronal endocannabinoid signaling modulates astrocytic Ca²⁺ signaling in the SCN. Finally, daytime application of WIN or adenosine phase advanced the molecular circadian clock, indicating that this cannabinoid signaling pathway is vital for the timing of circadian rhythms.

Gliotransmission: A Novel Target for the Development of Antiseizure Drugs

For more than a century, epilepsy has remained an incapacitating neurological disorder with a high incidence worldwide. Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is a common type of epilepsy without an effective pharmacological treatment. An increase in excitability and hypersynchrony of electrical neuronal activity during development are typically associated with an excitatory/inhibitory imbalance in the neuronal network. Astrocytes release gliotransmitters, which can regulate neuronal excitability and synaptic transmission; therefore, the classical neurocentric vision of the cellular basis of epileptogenesis has begun to change. Growing evidence suggests that the key contribution of astrocyte-to-neuron signaling in the mechanisms underlies the initiation, propagation, and recurrence of seizure activity. The aim of this review was to summarize current evidence obtained from experimental models that suggest how alterations in astroglial modulation of synaptic transmission and neuronal activity contribute to the development of this brain disease. In this article, we will summarize the main pharmacological, Ca²⁺-imaging, and electrophysiological findings in the gliotransmitter-mediated modulation of neuronal activity and their possible regulation as a novel cellular target for the development of pharmacological strategies for treating refractory epilepsies.

GABAergic-astrocyte signaling: A refinement of inhibitory brain networks

Interneurons play a critical role in precise control of network operation. Indeed, higher brain capabilities such as working memory, cognitive flexibility, attention, or social interaction rely on the action of GABAergic interneurons. Evidence from excitatory neurons and synapses has revealed astrocytes as integral elements of synaptic transmission. However, GABAergic interneurons can also engage astrocyte signaling; therefore, it is tempting to speculate about different scenarios where, based on particular interneuron cell type, GABAergic‐astrocyte interplay would be involved in diverse outcomes of brain function. In this review, we will highlight current data supporting the existence of dynamic GABAergic‐astrocyte communication and its impact on the inhibitory‐regulated brain responses, bringing new perspectives on the ways astrocytes might contribute to efficient neuronal coding.

Astrocytes integrate and drive action potential firing in inhibitory subnetworks

Many brain functions depend on the ability of neural networks to temporally integrate transient inputs to produce sustained discharges. This can occur through cell-autonomous mechanisms in individual neurons and through reverberating activity in recurrently connected neural networks. We report a third mechanism involving temporal integration of neural activity by a network of astrocytes. Previously, we showed that some types of interneurons can generate long-lasting trains of action potentials (barrage firing) following repeated depolarizing stimuli. Here we show that calcium signaling in an astrocytic network correlates with barrage firing; that active depolarization of astrocyte networks by chemical or optogenetic stimulation enhances; and that chelating internal calcium, inhibiting release from internal stores, or inhibiting GABA transporters or metabotropic glutamate receptors inhibits barrage firing. Thus, networks of astrocytes influence the spatiotemporal dynamics of neural networks by directly integrating neural activity and driving barrages of action potentials in some populations of inhibitory interneurons.

Specific types of inhibitory neurons exhibit prolonged, high-frequency barrages of action potentials. Here, the authors show that astrocytes might mediate such barrage firing.

Astrocytic Coverage of Dendritic Spines, Dendritic Shafts, and Axonal Boutons in Hippocampal Neuropil

Distal astrocytic processes have a complex morphology, reminiscent of branchlets and leaflets. Astrocytic branchlets are rod-like processes containing mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum, capable of generating inositol-3-phosphate (IP₃)-dependent Ca²⁺ signals. Leaflets are small and flat processes that protrude from branchlets and fill the space between synapses. Here we use three-dimensional (3D) reconstructions from serial section electron microscopy (EM) of rat CA1 hippocampal neuropil to determine the astrocytic coverage of dendritic spines, shafts and axonal boutons. The distance to the maximum of the astrocyte volume fraction (VF) correlated with the size of the spine when calculated from the center of mass of the postsynaptic density (PSD) or from the edge of the PSD, but not from the spine surface. This suggests that the astrocytic coverage of small and larger spines is similar in hippocampal neuropil. Diffusion simulations showed that such synaptic microenvironment favors glutamate spillover and extrasynaptic receptor activation at smaller spines. We used complexity and entropy measures to characterize astrocytic branchlets and leaflets. The 2D projections of astrocytic branchlets had smaller spatial complexity and entropy than leaflets, consistent with the higher structural complexity and less organized distribution of leaflets. The VF of astrocytic leaflets was highest around dendritic spines, lower around axonal boutons and lowest around dendritic shafts. In contrast, the VF of astrocytic branchlets was similarly low around these three neuronal compartments. Taken together, these results suggest that astrocytic leaflets preferentially contact synapses as opposed to the dendritic shaft, an arrangement that might favor neurotransmitter spillover and extrasynaptic receptor activation along dendritic shafts.

Purinergic modulation of glutamate transmission: An expanding role in stress-linked neuropathology

Chronic stress has been extensively linked to disturbances in glutamatergic signalling. Emerging from this field of research is a considerable number of studies identifying the ability of purines at the pre-, post-, and peri-synaptic levels to tune glutamatergic neurotransmission. While the evidence describing purinergic control of glutamate has continued to grow, there has been relatively little attention given to how chronic stress modulates purinergic functions. The available research on this topic has demonstrated that chronic stress can not only disturb purinergic receptors involved in the regulation of glutamate neurotransmission, but also perturb glial-dependent purinergic signalling. This review will provide a detailed examining of the complex literature relating to glutamatergic-purinergic interactions with a focus on both neuronal and glial contributions. Once these detailed interactions have been described and contextualised, we will integrate recent findings from the field of stress research.

Neuronal activity determines distinct gliotransmitter release from a single astrocyte

Accumulating evidence indicates that astrocytes are actively involved in brain function by regulating synaptic activity and plasticity. Different gliotransmitters, such as glutamate, ATP, GABA or D-serine, released form astrocytes have been shown to induce different forms of synaptic regulation. However, whether a single astrocyte may release different gliotransmitters is unknown. Here we show that mouse hippocampal astrocytes activated by endogenous (neuron-released endocannabinoids or GABA) or exogenous (single astrocyte Ca²⁺ uncaging) stimuli modulate putative single CA3-CA1 hippocampal synapses. The astrocyte-mediated synaptic modulation was biphasic and consisted of an initial glutamate-mediated potentiation followed by a purinergic-mediated depression of neurotransmitter release. The temporal dynamic properties of this biphasic synaptic regulation depended on the firing frequency and duration of the neuronal activity that stimulated astrocytes. Present results indicate that single astrocytes can decode neuronal activity and, in response, release distinct gliotransmitters to differentially regulate neurotransmission at putative single synapses.

Collective responses in electrical activities of neurons under field coupling

Synapse coupling can benefit signal exchange between neurons and information encoding for neurons, and the collective behaviors such as synchronization and pattern selection in neuronal network are often discussed under chemical or electric synapse coupling. Electromagnetic induction is considered at molecular level when ion currents flow across the membrane and the ion concentration is fluctuated. Magnetic flux describes the effect of time-varying electromagnetic field, and memristor bridges the membrane potential and magnetic flux according to the dimensionalization requirement. Indeed, field coupling can contribute to the signal exchange between neurons by triggering superposition of electric field when synapse coupling is not available. A chain network is designed to investigate the modulation of field coupling on the collective behaviors in neuronal network connected by electric synapse between adjacent neurons. In the chain network, the contribution of field coupling from each neuron is described by introducing appropriate weight dependent on the position distance between two neurons. Statistical factor of synchronization is calculated by changing the external stimulus and weight of field coupling. It is found that the synchronization degree is dependent on the coupling intensity and weight, the synchronization, pattern selection of network connected with gap junction can be modulated by field coupling.

Diversity of Evoked Astrocyte Ca2+ Dynamics Quantified through Experimental Measurements and Mathematical Modeling

Astrocytes are a major cell type in the mammalian brain. They are not electrically excitable, but generate prominent Ca²⁺ signals related to a wide variety of critical functions. The mechanisms driving these Ca²⁺ events remain incompletely understood. In this study, we integrate Ca²⁺ imaging, quantitative data analysis, and mechanistic computational modeling to study the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of cortical astrocyte Ca²⁺ transients evoked by focal application of ATP in mouse brain slices. Based on experimental results, we tune a single-compartment mathematical model of IP₃-dependent Ca²⁺ responses in astrocytes and use that model to study response heterogeneity. Using information from the experimental data and the underlying bifurcation structure of our mathematical model, we categorize all astrocyte Ca²⁺ responses into four general types based on their temporal characteristics: Single-Peak, Multi-Peak, Plateau, and Long-Lasting responses. We find that the distribution of experimentally-recorded response types depends on the location within an astrocyte, with somatic responses dominated by Single-Peak (SP) responses and large and small processes generating more Multi-Peak responses. On the other hand, response kinetics differ more between cells and trials than with location within a given astrocyte. We use the computational model to elucidate possible sources of Ca²⁺ response variability: (1) temporal dynamics of IP₃, and (2) relative flux rates through Ca²⁺ channels and pumps. Our model also predicts the effects of blocking Ca²⁺ channels/pumps; for example, blocking store-operated Ca²⁺ (SOC) channels in the model eliminates Plateau and Long-Lasting responses (consistent with previous experimental observations). Finally, we propose that observed differences in response type distributions between astrocyte somas and processes can be attributed to systematic differences in IP₃ rise durations and Ca²⁺ flux rates.

Mathematical investigation of IP3-dependent calcium dynamics in astrocytes

We study evoked calcium dynamics in astrocytes, a major cell type in the mammalian brain. Experimental evidence has shown that such dynamics are highly variable between different trials, cells, and cell subcompartments. Here we present a qualitative analysis of a recent mathematical model of astrocyte calcium responses. We show how the major response types are generated in the model as a result of the underlying bifurcation structure. By varying key channel parameters, mimicking blockers used by experimentalists, we manipulate this underlying bifurcation structure and predict how the distributions of responses can change. We find that store-operated calcium channels, plasma membrane bound channels with little activity during calcium transients, have a surprisingly strong effect, underscoring the importance of considering these channels in both experiments and mathematical settings. Variation in the maximum flow in different calcium channels is also shown to determine the range of stable oscillations, as well as set the range of frequencies of the oscillations. Further, by conducting a randomized search through the parameter space and recording the resulting calcium responses, we create a database that can be used by experimentalists to help estimate the underlying channel distribution of their cells.

Optogenetic and Chemogenetic Approaches for Studying Astrocytes and Gliotransmitters

The brain consists of heterogeneous populations of neuronal and non-neuronal cells. The revelation of their connections and interactions is fundamental to understanding normal brain functions as well as abnormal changes in pathological conditions. Optogenetics and chemogenetics have been developed to allow functional manipulations both in vitro and in vivo to examine causal relationships between cellular changes and functional outcomes. These techniques are based on genetically encoded effector molecules that respond exclusively to exogenous stimuli, such as a certain wavelength of light or a synthetic ligand. Activation of effector molecules provokes diverse intracellular changes, such as an influx or efflux of ions, depolarization or hyperpolarization of membranes, and activation of intracellular signaling cascades. Optogenetics and chemogenetics have been applied mainly to the study of neuronal circuits, but their use in studying non-neuronal cells has been gradually increasing. Here we introduce recent studies that have employed optogenetics and chemogenetics to reveal the function of astrocytes and gliotransmitters.

Modulation of Synaptic Plasticity by Glutamatergic Gliotransmission: A Modeling Study

Glutamatergic gliotransmission, that is, the release of glutamate from perisynaptic astrocyte processes in an activity-dependent manner, has emerged as a potentially crucial signaling pathway for regulation of synaptic plasticity, yet its modes of expression and function in vivo remain unclear. Here, we focus on two experimentally well-identified gliotransmitter pathways, (i) modulations of synaptic release and (ii) postsynaptic slow inward currents mediated by glutamate released from astrocytes, and investigate their possible functional relevance on synaptic plasticity in a biophysical model of an astrocyte-regulated synapse. Our model predicts that both pathways could profoundly affect both short- and long-term plasticity. In particular, activity-dependent glutamate release from astrocytes could dramatically change spike-timing-dependent plasticity, turning potentiation into depression (and vice versa) for the same induction protocol.

2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin exposure influence the expression of glutamate transporter GLT-1 in C6 glioma cells via the Ca(2+) /protein kinase C pathway

The widespread environmental contaminant, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), is considered one of the most toxic dioxin-like compounds. Although epidemiological studies have shown that TCDD exposure is linked to some neurological and neurophysiological disorders, the underlying mechanism of TCDD-mediated neurotoxicity has remained unclear. Astrocytes are the most abundant cells in the nervous systems, and are recognized as the important mediators of normal brain functions as well as neurological, neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative brain diseases. In this study, we investigated the role of TCDD in regulating the expression of glutamate transporter GLT-1 in astrocytes. TCDD, at concentrations of 0.1-100 nm, had no significantly harmful effect on the viability of C6 glioma cells. However, the expression of GLT-1 in C6 glioma cells was downregulated in a dose- and time-dependent manner. TCDD also caused activation of protein kinase C (PKC), as TCDD induced translocation of the PKC from the cytoplasm or perinuclear to the membrane. The translocation of PKC was inhibited by one Ca(2+) blocker, nifedipine, suggesting that the effects are triggered by the initial elevated intracellular concentration of free Ca(2+) . Finally, we showed that inhibition of the PKC activity reverses the TCDD-triggered reduction of GLT-1. In summary, our results suggested that TCDD exposure could downregulate the expression of GLT-1 in C6 via Ca(2+) /PKC pathway. The downregulation of GLT-1 might participate in TCDD-mediated neurotoxicity. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Plasticity of Hippocampal Excitatory-Inhibitory Balance: Missing the Synaptic Control in the Epileptic Brain

Synaptic plasticity is the capacity generated by experience to modify the neural function and, thereby, adapt our behaviour. Long-term plasticity of glutamatergic and GABAergic transmission occurs in a concerted manner, finely adjusting the excitatory-inhibitory (E/I) balance. Imbalances of E/I function are related to several neurological diseases including epilepsy. Several evidences have demonstrated that astrocytes are able to control the synaptic plasticity, with astrocytes being active partners in synaptic physiology and E/I balance. Here, we revise molecular evidences showing the epileptic stage as an abnormal form of long-term brain plasticity and propose the possible participation of astrocytes to the abnormal increase of glutamatergic and decrease of GABAergic neurotransmission in epileptic networks.

Enteric Glial Cells: A New Frontier in Neurogastroenterology and Clinical Target for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

The word "glia" is derived from the Greek word "γλoια," glue of the enteric nervous system, and for many years, enteric glial cells (EGCs) were believed to provide mainly structural support. However, EGCs as astrocytes in the central nervous system may serve a much more vital and active role in the enteric nervous system, and in homeostatic regulation of gastrointestinal functions. The emphasis of this review will be on emerging concepts supported by basic, translational, and/or clinical studies, implicating EGCs in neuron-to-glial (neuroglial) communication, motility, interactions with other cells in the gut microenvironment, infection, and inflammatory bowel diseases. The concept of the "reactive glial phenotype" is explored as it relates to inflammatory bowel diseases, bacterial and viral infections, postoperative ileus, functional gastrointestinal disorders, and motility disorders. The main theme of this review is that EGCs are emerging as a new frontier in neurogastroenterology and a potential therapeutic target. New technological innovations in neuroimaging techniques are facilitating progress in the field, and an update is provided on exciting new translational studies. Gaps in our knowledge are discussed for further research. Restoring normal EGC function may prove to be an efficient strategy to dampen inflammation. Probiotics, palmitoylethanolamide (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α), interleukin-1 antagonists (anakinra), and interventions acting on nitric oxide, receptor for advanced glycation end products, S100B, or purinergic signaling pathways are relevant clinical targets on EGCs with therapeutic potential.

Gq-DREADD Selectively Initiates Glial Glutamate Release and Inhibits Cue-induced Cocaine Seeking

BACKGROUND

Glial cells of the central nervous system directly influence neuronal activity by releasing neuroactive small molecules, including glutamate. Long-lasting cocaine-induced reductions in extracellular glutamate in the nucleus accumbens core (NAcore) affect synaptic plasticity responsible for relapse vulnerability.

METHODS

We transduced NAcore astrocytes with an adeno-associated virus vector expressing hM3D designer receptor exclusively activated by a designer drug (DREADD) under control of the glial fibrillary acidic protein promoter in 62 male Sprague Dawley rats, 4 dominant-negative soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor mice, and 4 wild-type littermates. Using glutamate biosensors, we measured NAcore glutamate levels following intracranial or systemic administration of clozapine N-oxide (CNO) and tested the ability of systemic CNO to inhibit reinstated cocaine or sucrose seeking following self-administration and extinction training.

RESULTS

Administration of CNO in glial fibrillary acidic protein-hM3D-DREADD transfected animals increased NAcore extracellular glutamate levels in vivo. The glial origin of released glutamate was validated by an absence of CNO-mediated release in mice expressing a dominant-negative soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor variant in glia. Also, CNO-mediated release was relatively insensitive to N-type calcium channel blockade. Systemic administration of CNO inhibited cue-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking in rats extinguished from cocaine but not sucrose self-administration. The capacity to inhibit reinstated cocaine seeking was prevented by systemic administration of the group II metabotropic glutamate receptor antagonist LY341495.

CONCLUSIONS

DREADD-mediated glutamate gliotransmission inhibited cue-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking by stimulating release-regulating group II metabotropic glutamate receptor autoreceptors to inhibit cue-induced synaptic glutamate spillover.

Perisynaptic astroglial processes: dynamic processors of neuronal information

Neuroglial interactions are now recognized as essential to brain functions. Extensive research has sought to understand the modalities of such dialog by focusing on astrocytes, the most abundant glial cell type of the central nervous system. Neuron-astrocyte exchanges occur at multiple levels, at different cellular locations. With regard to information processing, regulations occurring around synapses are of particular interest as synaptic networks are thought to underlie higher brain functions. Astrocytes morphology is tremendously complex in that their processes exceedingly branch out to eventually form multitudinous fine leaflets. The latter extremities have been shown to surround many synapses, forming perisynaptic astrocytic processes, which although recognized as essential to synaptic functioning, are poorly defined elements due to their tiny size. The current review sums up the current knowledge on their molecular and structural properties as well as the functional characteristics making them good candidates for information processing units.

Astrocytes: Orchestrating synaptic plasticity?

Synaptic plasticity is the capacity of a preexisting connection between two neurons to change in strength as a function of neural activity. Because synaptic plasticity is the major candidate mechanism for learning and memory, the elucidation of its constituting mechanisms is of crucial importance in many aspects of normal and pathological brain function. In particular, a prominent aspect that remains debated is how the plasticity mechanisms, that encompass a broad spectrum of temporal and spatial scales, come to play together in a concerted fashion. Here we review and discuss evidence that pinpoints to a possible non-neuronal, glial candidate for such orchestration: the regulation of synaptic plasticity by astrocytes.

Locus Coeruleus, norepinephrine and Aβ peptides in Alzheimer's disease

Monoaminergic brainstem systems have widespread projections that participate in many central processes and, when dysregulated, contribute to a plethora of neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders. Synapses are the foundation of these neuronal circuits, and their local dysfunction results in global aberrations leading to pathophysiological disease states. This review focuses on the locus coeruleus (LC) norepinephrine (NE) brainstem system and its underappreciated role in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Amyloid beta (Aβ), a peptide that accumulates aberrantly in AD has recently been implicated as a modulator of neuronal excitability at the synapse. Evidence is presented showing that disruption of the LC-NE system at a synaptic and circuit level during early stages of AD, due to conditions such as chronic stress, can potentially lead to amyloid accumulation and contribute to the progression of this neurodegenerative disorder. Additional factors that impact neurodegeneration include neuroinflammation, and network de-synchronization. Consequently, targeting the LC-NE system may have significant therapeutic potential for AD, as it may facilitate modulation of Aβ production, curtail neuroinflammation, and prevent sleep and behavioral disturbances that often lead to negative patient outcomes.

Activation of metabotropic glutamate receptors regulates ribosomes of cochlear nucleus neurons

The brain stem auditory system of the chick is an advantageous model for examining changes that occur as a result of deafness. Elimination of acoustic input through cochlear ablation results in the eventual death of approximately 30% of neurons in the chick cochlear nucleus, nucleus magnocellularis (NM). One early change following deafness is an alteration in NM ribosomes, evidenced both by a decrease in protein synthesis and reduction in antigenicity for Y10B, a monoclonal antibody that recognizes a ribosomal epitope. Previous studies have shown that mGluR activation is necessary to maintain Y10B antigenicity and NM viability. What is still unclear, however, is whether or not mGluR activation is sufficient to prevent deafness-induced changes in these neurons, or if other activity-dependent factors are also necessary. The current study investigated the ability of mGluR activation to regulate cochlear nucleus ribosomes in the absence of auditory nerve input. In vitro methods were employed to periodically pressure eject glutamate or mGluR agonists over neurons on one side of a slice preparation leaving the opposite side of the same slice untreated. Immunohistochemistry was then performed using Y10B in order to assess ribosomal changes. Application of glutamate and both group I and II selective mGluR agonists effectively rescued ribosomal antigenicity on the treated side of the slice in comparison to ribosomes on the untreated side. These findings suggest that administration of mGluR agonists is sufficient to reduce the early interruption of normal ribosomal integrity that is typically seen following loss of auditory nerve activity.

Group III metabotropic glutamate receptors: pharmacology, physiology and therapeutic potential

Glutamate, the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS), exerts neuromodulatory actions via the activation of metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors. There are eight known mGlu receptor subtypes (mGlu1-8), which are widely expressed throughout the brain, and are divided into three groups (I-III), based on signalling pathways and pharmacological profiles. Group III mGlu receptors (mGlu4/6/7/8) are primarily, although not exclusively, localised on presynaptic terminals, where they act as both auto- and hetero-receptors, inhibiting the release of neurotransmitter. Until recently, our understanding of the role of individual group III mGlu receptor subtypes was hindered by a lack of subtype-selective pharmacological tools. Recent advances in the development of both orthosteric and allosteric group III-targeting compounds, however, have prompted detailed investigations into the possible functional role of these receptors within the CNS, and revealed their involvement in a number of pathological conditions, such as epilepsy, anxiety and Parkinson's disease. The heterogeneous expression of group III mGlu receptor subtypes throughout the brain, as well as their distinct distribution at glutamatergic and GABAergic synapses, makes them ideal targets for therapeutic intervention. This review summarises the advances in subtype-selective pharmacology, and discusses the individual roles of group III mGlu receptors in physiology, and their potential involvement in disease.

Computational quest for understanding the role of astrocyte signaling in synaptic transmission and plasticity

The complexity of the signaling network that underlies astrocyte-synapse interactions may seem discouraging when tackled from a theoretical perspective. Computational modeling is challenged by the fact that many details remain hitherto unknown and conventional approaches to describe synaptic function are unsuitable to explain experimental observations when astrocytic signaling is taken into account. Supported by experimental evidence is the possibility that astrocytes perform genuine information processing by means of their calcium signaling and are players in the physiological setting of the basal tone of synaptic transmission. Here we consider the plausibility of this scenario from a theoretical perspective, focusing on the modulation of synaptic release probability by the astrocyte and its implications on synaptic plasticity. The analysis of the signaling pathways underlying such modulation refines our notion of tripartite synapse and has profound implications on our understanding of brain function.

Bi-directional astrocytic regulation of neuronal activity within a network

The concept of a tripartite synapse holds that astrocytes can affect both the pre- and post-synaptic compartments through the Ca²⁺-dependent release of gliotransmitters. Because astrocytic Ca²⁺ transients usually last for a few seconds, we assumed that astrocytic regulation of synaptic transmission may also occur on the scale of seconds. Here, we considered the basic physiological functions of tripartite synapses and investigated astrocytic regulation at the level of neural network activity. The firing dynamics of individual neurons in a spontaneous firing network was described by the Hodgkin–Huxley model. The neurons received excitatory synaptic input driven by the Poisson spike train with variable frequency. The mean field concentration of the released neurotransmitter was used to describe the presynaptic dynamics. The amplitudes of the excitatory postsynaptic currents (PSCs) obeyed the gamma distribution law. In our model, astrocytes depressed the presynaptic release and enhanced the PSCs. As a result, low frequency synaptic input was suppressed while high frequency input was amplified. The analysis of the neuron spiking frequency as an indicator of network activity revealed that tripartite synaptic transmission dramatically changed the local network operation compared to bipartite synapses. Specifically, the astrocytes supported homeostatic regulation of the network activity by increasing or decreasing firing of the neurons. Thus, the astrocyte activation may modulate a transition of neural network into bistable regime of activity with two stable firing levels and spontaneous transitions between them.

Astrocytes and developmental plasticity in fragile X

A growing body of research indicates a pivotal role for astrocytes at the developing synapse. In particular, astrocytes are dynamically involved in governing synapse structure, function, and plasticity. In the postnatal brain, their appearance at synapses coincides with periods of developmental plasticity when neural circuits are refined and established. Alterations in the partnership between astrocytes and neurons have now emerged as important mechanisms that underlie neuropathology. With overall synaptic function standing as a prominent link to the expression of the disease phenotype in a number of neurodevelopmental disorders and knowing that astrocytes influence synapse development and function, this paper highlights the current knowledge of astrocyte biology with a focus on their involvement in fragile X syndrome.

Gliotransmission and the tripartite synapse

In the last years, the classical view of glial cells (in particular of astrocytes) as a simple supportive cell for neurons has been replaced by a new vision in which glial cells are active elements of the brain. Such a new vision is based on the existence of a bidirectional communication between astrocytes and neurons at synaptic level. Indeed, perisynaptic processes of astrocytes express active G-protein-coupled receptors that are able (1) to sense neurotransmitters released from the synapse during synaptic activity, (2) to increase cytosolic levels of calcium, and (3) to stimulate the release of gliotransmitters that in turn can interact with the synaptic elements. The mechanism(s) by which astrocytes can release gliotransmitter has been extensively studied during the last years. Many evidences have suggested that a fraction of astrocytes in situ release neuroactive substances both with calcium-dependent and calcium-independent mechanism(s); whether these mechanisms coexist and under what physiological or pathological conditions they occur, it remains unclear. However, the calcium-dependent exocytotic vesicular release has received considerable attention due to its potential to occur under physiological conditions via a finely regulated way. By releasing gliotransmitters in millisecond time scale with a specific vesicular apparatus, astrocytes can integrate and process synaptic information and control or modulate synaptic transmission and plasticity.

Astroglial excitability and gliotransmission: an appraisal of Ca2+ as a signalling route

Astroglial cells, due to their passive electrical properties, were long considered subservient to neurons and to merely provide the framework and metabolic support of the brain. Although astrocytes do play such structural and housekeeping roles in the brain, these glial cells also contribute to the brain's computational power and behavioural output. These more active functions are endowed by the Ca²⁺-based excitability displayed by astrocytes. An increase in cytosolic Ca²⁺ levels in astrocytes can lead to the release of signalling molecules, a process termed gliotransmission, via the process of regulated exocytosis. Dynamic components of astrocytic exocytosis include the vesicular-plasma membrane secretory machinery, as well as the vesicular traffic, which is governed not only by general cytoskeletal elements but also by astrocyte-specific IFs (intermediate filaments). Gliotransmitters released into the ECS (extracellular space) can exert their actions on neighbouring neurons, to modulate synaptic transmission and plasticity, and to affect behaviour by modulating the sleep homoeostat. Besides these novel physiological roles, astrocytic Ca²⁺ dynamics, Ca²⁺-dependent gliotransmission and astrocyte–neuron signalling have been also implicated in brain disorders, such as epilepsy. The aim of this review is to highlight the newer findings concerning Ca²⁺ signalling in astrocytes and exocytotic gliotransmission. For this we report on Ca²⁺ sources and sinks that are necessary and sufficient for regulating the exocytotic release of gliotransmitters and discuss secretory machinery, secretory vesicles and vesicle mobility regulation. Finally, we consider the exocytotic gliotransmission in the modulation of synaptic transmission and plasticity, as well as the astrocytic contribution to sleep behaviour and epilepsy.

Heterogeneity of astrocytic form and function

Astrocytes participate in all essential CNS functions, including blood flow regulation, energy metabolism, ion and water homeostasis, immune defence, neurotransmission, and adult neurogenesis. It is thus not surprising that astrocytic morphology and function differ between regions, and that different subclasses of astrocytes exist within the same brain region. Recent lines of work also show that the complexity of protoplasmic astrocytes increases during evolution. Human astrocytes are structurally more complex, larger, and propagate calcium signals significantly faster than rodent astrocytes. In this chapter, we review the diversity of astrocytic form and function, while considering the markedly expanded roles of astrocytes with phylogenetic evolution. We also define major challenges for the future, which include determining how astrocytic functions are locally specified, defining the molecular controls upon astrocytic fate and physiology and establishing how evolutionary changes in astrocytes contribute to higher cognitive functions.

Sustained neuronal activity generated by glial plasticity

Astrocytes release gliotransmitters, notably glutamate, that can affect neuronal and synaptic activity. In particular, astrocytic glutamate release results in the generation of NMDA receptor (NMDA-R)-mediated slow inward currents (SICs) in neurons. However, factors underlying the emergence of SICs and their physiological roles are essentially unknown. Here we show that, in acute slices of rat somatosensory thalamus, stimulation of lemniscal or cortical afferents results in a sustained increase of SICs in thalamocortical (TC) neurons that outlasts the duration of the stimulus by 1 h. This long-term enhancement of astrocytic glutamate release is induced by group I metabotropic glutamate receptors and is dependent on astrocytic intracellular calcium. Neuronal SICs are mediated by extrasynaptic NR2B subunit-containing NMDA-Rs and are capable of eliciting bursts. These are distinct from T-type Ca(2+) channel-dependent bursts of action potentials and are synchronized in neighboring TC neurons. These findings describe a previously unrecognized form of excitatory, nonsynaptic plasticity in the CNS that feeds forward to generate local neuronal firing long after stimulus termination.

Dysregulation of Ca2+ signaling in astrocytes from mice lacking amyloid precursor protein

The relationship between altered metabolism of the amyloid-β precursor protein (APP) and Alzheimer's disease is well established but the physiological roles of APP still remain unclear. Here, we studied Ca(2+) signaling in primary cultured and freshly dissociated cortical astrocytes from APP knockout (KO) mice and from Tg5469 mice overproducing by five- to sixfold wild-type APP. Resting cytosolic Ca(2+) (measured with fura-2) was not altered in cultured astrocytes from APP KO mice. The stored Ca(2+) evaluated by measuring peak amplitude of cyclopiazonic acid [CPA, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca(2+) ATPase inhibitor]-induced Ca(2+) transients in Ca(2+)-free medium was significantly smaller in APP KO astrocytes than in wild-type cells. Store-operated Ca(2+) entry (SOCE) activated by ER Ca(2+) store depletion with CPA was also greatly reduced in APP KO astrocytes. This reflected a downregulated expression in APP KO astrocytes of TRPC1 (C-type transient receptor potential) and Orai1 proteins, essential components of store-operated channels (SOCs). Indeed, silencer RNA (siRNA) knockdown of Orai1 protein expression in wild-type astrocytes significantly attenuated SOCE. SOCE was also essentially reduced in freshly dissociated APP KO astrocytes. Importantly, knockdown of APP with siRNA in cultured wild-type astrocytes markedly attenuated ATP- and CPA-induced ER Ca(2+) release and extracellular Ca(2+) influx. The latter correlated with downregulation of TRPC1. Overproduction of APP in Tg5469 mice did not alter, however, the stored Ca(2+) level, SOCE, and expression of TRPC1/4/5 in cultured astrocytes from these mice. The data demonstrate that the functional role of APP in astrocytes involves the regulation of TRPC1/Orai1-encoded SOCs critical for Ca(2+) signaling.

Astrocytes control GABAergic inhibition of neurons in the mouse barrel cortex

Astrocytes in the barrel cortex respond with a transient Ca2+ increase to neuronal stimulation and this response is restricted to the stimulated barrel field. In the present study we suppressed the astrocyte response by dialysing these cells with the Ca2+ chelator BAPTA. Electrical stimulation triggered a depolarization in stellate or pyramidal ‘regular spiking' neurons from cortex layer 4 and 2/3 and this response was augmented in amplitude and duration after astrocytes were dialysed with BAPTA. Combined blockade of GABAA and GABAB receptors mimicked the effect of BAPTA dialysis, while glutamate receptor blockers had no effect. Moreover, the frequency of spontaneous postsynaptic currents was increased after BAPTA dialysis. Outside the range of BAPTA dialysis astrocytes responded with a Ca2+ increase, but in contrast to control, the response was no longer restricted to one barrel field. Our findings indicate that astrocytes control neuronal inhibition in the barrel cortex.

Is astrocyte calcium signaling relevant for synaptic plasticity?

Astrocytes constitute a major group of glial cells which were long regarded as passive elements, fulfilling nutritive and structural functions for neurons. Calcium rise in astrocytes propagating to neurons was the first demonstration of direct interaction between the two cell types. Since then, calcium has been widely used, not only as an indicator of astrocytic activity but also as a stimulator switch to control astrocyte physiology. As a result, astrocytes have been elevated from auxiliaries to neurons, to cells involved in processing synaptic information. Curiously, while there is evidence that astrocytes play an important role in synaptic plasticity, the data relating to calcium's pivotal role are inconsistent. In this review, we will detail the various mechanisms of calcium flux in astrocytes, then briefly present the calcium-dependent mechanisms of gliotransmitter release. Finally, we will discuss the role of calcium in plasticity and present alternative explanations that could reconcile the conflicting results published recently.

In vivo analysis of the role of metabotropic glutamate receptors in the afferent regulation of chick cochlear nucleus neurons

Cochlea removal results in the death of approximately 20-30% of neurons in the chick nucleus magnocellularis (NM). One early event in NM neuronal degradation is the disruption of their ribosomes. This can be visualized in the first few hours following cochlea removal using Y10B, an antibody that recognizes ribosomal RNA. Previous studies using a brain slice preparation suggest that maintenance of ribosomal integrity in NM neurons requires metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) activation. Isolating the brain slice in vitro, however, may eliminate other potential sources of trophic support and only allows for evaluation of the early changes that occur in NM neurons following deafferentation. Consequently, it is not known if mGluR activation is truly required for the maintenance of NM neurons in the intact system. The current experiments evaluated the importance of mGluRs in vivo. The effects of short-term receptor blockade were assessed through Y10B labeling and the effects of long-term blockade were assessed through stereological counting of NM neurons in Nissl-stained tissue. mGluR antagonists or vehicle were administered intracerebroventricularly following unilateral cochlea removal. Vehicle-treated subjects replicated the previously reported effects of cochlea removal, showing lighter Y10B labeling and fewer Nissl-stained NM neurons on the deafened side of the brain. Blockade of mGluRs prevented the rapid activity-dependent difference in Y10B labeling, and in some cases, had the reverse effect, yielding lighter labeling of NM neurons on the intact side of the brain. Similarly, mGluR blockade over longer survival periods resulted in a reduction in number of cells on both intact and deafferented sides of the brain, and in some cases, yielded a reverse effect of fewer neurons on the intact side versus deafened side. These data are consistent with in vitro findings and suggest that mGluR activation plays a vital role in the afferent maintenance of NM neurons.

Glial cells in neuronal network function

Numerous evidence demonstrates that astrocytes, a type of glial cell, are integral functional elements of the synapses, responding to neuronal activity and regulating synaptic transmission and plasticity. Consequently, they are actively involved in the processing, transfer and storage of information by the nervous system, which challenges the accepted paradigm that brain function results exclusively from neuronal network activity, and suggests that nervous system function actually arises from the activity of neuron-glia networks. Most of our knowledge of the properties and physiological consequences of the bidirectional communication between astrocytes and neurons resides at cellular and molecular levels. In contrast, much less is known at higher level of complexity, i.e. networks of cells, and the actual impact of astrocytes in the neuronal network function remains largely unexplored. In the present article, we summarize the current evidence that supports the notion that astrocytes are integral components of nervous system networks and we discuss some functional properties of intercellular signalling in neuron-glia networks.

Astrocytes impose postburst depression of release probability at hippocampal glutamate synapses

Many neurons typically fire action potentials in brief, high-frequency bursts with specific consequences for their synaptic output. Here we have examined short-term plasticity engaged during burst activation using electrophysiological recordings in acute rat hippocampal slices. We show that CA3-CA1 glutamate synapses exhibit a prominent depression of presynaptic release probability for approximately 1 s after such a burst. This postburst depression exhibits a distinct cooperativity threshold, is abolished by inhibiting astrocyte metabolism and astrocyte calcium signaling, and is not operational in the developing hippocampus. Our results suggest that astrocytes are actively involved in short-term synaptic depression, shaping synaptic activity during behaviorally relevant neural activity.

Simulation of spontaneous Ca2+ oscillations in astrocytes mediated by voltage-gated calcium channels

The purpose of this computational study was to investigate the possible role of voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels in spontaneous Ca(2+) oscillations of astrocytes. By incorporating different types of voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels and a previous model, this study reproduced typical Ca(2+) oscillations in silico. Our model could mimic the oscillatory phenomenon under a wide range of experimental conditions, including resting membrane potential (-75 to -60 mV), extracellular Ca(2+) concentration (0.1 to 1500 muM), temperature (20 to 37 degrees C), and blocking specific Ca(2+) channels. By varying the experimental conditions, the amplitude and duration of Ca(2+) oscillations changed slightly (both <25%), while the frequency changed significantly ( approximately 400%). This indicates that spontaneous Ca(2+) oscillations in astrocytes might be an all-or-none process, which might be frequency-encoded in signaling. Moreover, the properties of Ca(2+) oscillations were found to be related to the dynamics of Ca(2+) influx, and not only to a constant influx. Therefore, calcium channels dynamics should be used in studying Ca(2+) oscillations. This work provides a platform to explore the still unclear mechanism of spontaneous Ca(2+) oscillations in astrocytes.

GLIA modulates synaptic transmission

The classical view of glial cells as simple supportive cells for neurons is being replaced by a new vision in which glial cells are active elements involved in the physiology of the nervous system. This new vision is based on the fact that astrocytes, a subtype of glial cells in the CNS, are stimulated by synaptically released neurotransmitters, which increase the astrocyte Ca(2+) levels and stimulate the release of gliotransmitters that regulate synaptic efficacy and plasticity. Consequently, our understanding of synaptic function, previously thought to exclusively result from signaling between neurons, has also changed to include the bidirectional signaling between neurons and astrocytes. Hence, astrocytes have been revealed as integral elements involved in the synaptic physiology, therefore contributing to the processing, transfer and storage of information by the nervous system. Reciprocal communication between astrocytes and neurons is therefore part of the intercellular signaling processes involved in brain function.

What is the role of astrocyte calcium in neurophysiology?

Astrocytes comprise approximately half of the volume of the adult mammalian brain and are the primary neuronal structural and trophic supportive elements. Astrocytes are organized into distinct nonoverlapping domains and extend elaborate and dense fine processes that interact intimately with synapses and cerebrovasculature. The recognition in the mid 1990s that astrocytes undergo elevations in intracellular calcium concentration following activation of G protein-coupled receptors by synaptically released neurotransmitters demonstrated not only that astrocytes display a form of excitability but also that astrocytes may be active participants in brain information processing. The roles that astrocytic calcium elevations play in neurophysiology and especially in modulation of neuronal activity have been intensely researched in recent years. This review will summarize the current understanding of the function of astrocytic calcium signaling in neurophysiological processes and discuss areas where the role of astrocytes remains controversial and will therefore benefit from further study.

Loss of IP3 receptor-dependent Ca2+ increases in hippocampal astrocytes does not affect baseline CA1 pyramidal neuron synaptic activity

Astrocytes in the hippocampus release calcium (Ca(2+)) from intracellular stores intrinsically and in response to activation of G(q)-linked G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) through the binding of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3)) to its receptor (IP(3)R). Astrocyte Ca(2+) has been deemed necessary and sufficient to trigger the release of gliotransmitters, such as ATP and glutamate, from astrocytes to modulate neuronal activity. Several lines of evidence suggest that IP(3)R type 2 (IP(3)R2) is the primary IP(3)R expressed by astrocytes. To determine whether IP(3)R2 is the primary functional IP(3)R responsible for astrocytic Ca(2+) increases, we conducted experiments using an IP(3)R2 knock-out mouse model (IP(3)R2 KO). We show, for the first time, that lack of IP(3)R2 blocks both spontaneous and G(q)-linked GPCR-mediated increases in astrocyte Ca(2+). Furthermore, neuronal G(q)-linked GPCR Ca(2+) increases remain intact, suggesting that IP(3)R2 does not play a major functional role in neuronal calcium store release or may not be expressed in neurons. Additionally, we show that lack of IP(3)R2 in the hippocampus does not affect baseline excitatory neuronal synaptic activity as measured by spontaneous EPSC recordings from CA1 pyramidal neurons. Whole-cell recordings of the tonic NMDA receptor-mediated current indicates that ambient glutamate levels are also unaffected in the IP(3)R2 KO. These data show that IP(3)R2 is the key functional IP(3)R driving G(q)-linked GPCR-mediated Ca(2+) increases in hippocampal astrocytes and that removal of astrocyte Ca(2+) increases does not significantly affect excitatory neuronal synaptic activity or ambient glutamate levels.