Review: Enhancing intramuscular fat development via targeting fibro-adipogenic progenitor cells in meat animals

Integrating spatial transcriptomics and single-nucleus RNA-seq revealed the specific inhibitory effects of TGF-β on intramuscular fat deposition

Intramuscular fat (IMF) is a complex adipose tissue within skeletal muscle, appearing specially tissue heterogeneous, and the factors influencing its formation remain unclear. In conditions such as diabetes, aging, and muscle wasting, IMF was deposited in abnormal locations in skeletal muscle, damaged the normal physiological functions of skeletal muscle. Here, we used Longissimus dorsi muscles from pigs with different IMF contents as samples and adopted a method combining spatial transcriptome (ST) and single-nucleus RNA-seq to identify the spatial heterogeneity of IMF. ST revealed that genes involved in TGF-β signaling pathways were specifically highly enriched in IMF. In lean pigs, IMF autocrine produces more TGF-β2, while in obese pigs, IMF received more endothelial-derived TGF-β1. In vitro experiments have proven that porcine endothelial cells in a simulated high-fat environment released more TGF-β1 than TGF-β2. Moreover, under obesity mice, the addition of TGF-β after muscle injury abolished IMF production and slowed muscle repair, whereas TGF-β inhibition accelerated muscle repair. Our findings demonstrate that the TGF-β pathway specifically regulates these processes, suggesting it as a potential therapeutic target for managing muscle atrophy in obese patients and enhancing muscle repair while reducing IMF deposition.

LIPG-mediated regulation of lipid deposition and proliferation in goat intramuscular preadipocytes involves the PPARα signaling pathway

Endothelial lipase (LIPG), a member of the triglyceride lipase family, plays an essential role in human diseases and lipid metabolism. However, its function in goat intramuscular fat (IMF) deposition remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the role of the LIPG gene in IMF deposition by knocking down and overexpressing it in goat intramuscular preadipocytes. We successfully cloned the full-length LIPG gene, which spans 2,131 bp, including a 94 bp 5' untranslated region (5'UTR), a 1,503 bp coding sequence (CDS), and a 534 bp 3' untranslated region (3'UTR). Tissue expression profiles showed that LIPG is expressed in the heart, liver, spleen, Kidney, longest dorsal muscle, and small intestine tissues of goats. LIPG knockdown significantly inhibited both the proliferation of intramuscular preadipocytes and lipid deposition. Moreover, LIPG knockdown markedly decreased mRNA expression of FASN, LPL, CPT1A, CPT1B, FABP3, while increasing the mRNA expression of ATGL, ACOX1, FADS1, and ELOVL6. These findings were further corroborated through LIPG overexpression experiments. Using RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), we identified 1695 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the negative control (NC) and LIPG knockdown (Si-LIPG) groups, with KEGG pathway analysis revealing significant enrichment in the PPAR signaling pathway. Additionally, LIPG knockdown significantly upregulated the expression of both mRNA and protein levels of PPARα. The PPARα agonist WY14643 was able to reverse the enhanced lipid deposition induced by LIPG overexpression. In conclusion, our study highlights a key role for LIPG in the regulation of goat intramuscular preadipocyte proliferation and lipid deposition, potentially through the PPARα signaling pathway. These findings provide new insights into the regulatory mechanisms governing IMF deposition and suggest potential strategies for improving goat meat quality.

Single-cell transcriptome reveals three types of adipocytes associated with intramuscular fat content in pigs

Intramuscular fat is an essential component of muscle tissue, and understanding its contribution to skeletal muscle fat infiltration and meat quality, together with the underlying genetic mechanisms, is a major topic in pig husbandry. However, the composition of cell types and gene expression profiles essential for this purpose remain largely unexplored. Here, we performed single-cell transcriptome analysis on muscle tissue from adult pigs and identified 15 cell types, including three previously uncharacterized types of adipocytes: Adipocyte 1, Adipocyte 2, and Aregs. Phenotypic analysis showed their proportions correlated closely with intramuscular fat content. Based on integrated analysis of ATAC-seq with RNA-seq data, Adipocyte 1 and Aregs have gene expression profiles and transcription factor (TF) motif enrichment typical of adipocytes. On the other hand, myogenic TF motifs were enriched in marker gene promoters in Adipocyte 2, suggesting that these cells originate from muscle cells. Moreover, the marker gene promoters and lineage-specific TF expression in these three adipocyte types were conserved between pigs and humans. These findings provide deep insights towards understanding the complexity of mammalian intramuscular adipocyte types and the gene regulation underlying their organization and function.

Multi-Omics Insights into Regulatory Mechanisms Underlying Differential Deposition of Intramuscular and Abdominal Fat in Chickens

Excessive abdominal fat deposition in chickens disadvantages feed conversion, meat production, and reproductive performance. Intramuscular fat contributes to meat texture, tenderness, and flavor, serving as a vital indicator of overall meat quality. Therefore, a comprehensive analysis of the regulatory mechanisms governing differential deposition of abdominal versus intramuscular fat is essential in breeding higher-quality chickens with ideal fat distribution. This review systematically summarizes the regulatory mechanisms underlying intramuscular and abdominal fat traits at chromatin, genomic, transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, and epigenetic-modification scales. Additionally, we summarize the role of non-coding RNAs and protein-coding genes in governing intramuscular and abdominal fat deposition. These insights provide a valuable theoretical foundation for the genetic engineering of high-quality and high-yielding chicken breeds.

Transcriptomic and metabolomic-based revelation of the effect of fresh corn extract on meat quality of Jingyuan chicken

To investigate the effect of fresh corn extract (FCE) on chicken meat quality, 135-day-old Jingyuan chicken hens were fed diets containing different doses of FCE (CON, 0.3% FCE, 0.6% FCE and 0.9% FCE) until 180 day-old in this study. Meat performance measurements showed that the 0.6% FCE group of Jingyuan chickens had higher intramuscular fat (IMF), pressing loss (PL), amino acid and fatty acid contents (P < 0.05). Their breasts were collected for transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses (n=8), and 210 Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and 29 Differentially expressed genes (DEMs) were obtained. Gene Ontology (GO) analyses of DEGs indicate multiple entries involved in IMF synthesis such as skeletal system development and cellular response to amino acid stimulation. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (GSEA-KEGG) analysis identified sphingolipid_metabolism and multiple genes affecting IMF deposition including SPHK1, CERS1, CERS6, GLB1L, SGMS2, UGT8, and UGCG. KEGG and metabolite correlation analyses of DEMs identified Aspartate, PI 38:5; PI(18:1/20:4), PI 36:3; PI(18:1/18:2), PI 36:2; PI(18:0/18:2), and PI 34:1; PI(16:0/18:1) as the likely major influences on IMF deposition in the DEMs. Correlation analysis revealed that shear force (SF) was significantly and positively correlated with Aspartate and CERS6; PL was significantly and positively correlated with SPHK1 and UGCG (P < 0.05). IMF was significantly and positively correlated with PI 34:1; PI (16:0/18:1), SPHK1 and UGCG; and flesh colour yellowness b* was significantly and positively correlated with SGMS2 (P < 0.05). The above results indicate that feeding a basal diet containing 0.6% FCE can improve the meat quality of Jingyuan chicken, which provides a theoretical basis for improving the meat quality of Jingyuan chicken.

Unraveling the genetic and epigenetic landscape governing intramuscular fat deposition in rabbits: Insights and implications

Intramuscular fat (IMF) content is a predominant factor recognized to affect rabbit meat quality, directly impacting flavor, juiciness, and consumer preference. Despite its significance, the major interplay of genetic and epigenetic factors regulating IMF in rabbits remains largely unexplored. This review sheds light on this critical knowledge gap, offering valuable insights and future directions. We delve into the potential role of established candidate genes from other livestock (e.g. PPARγ, FABP4, and SCD) in rabbits, while exploring the identified novel genes of IMF in rabbits. Furthermore, we explored the quantitative trait loci studies in rabbit IMF and genomic selection approaches for improving IMF content in rabbits. Beyond genetics, this review unveils the exciting realm of epigenetic mechanisms modulating IMF deposition. We explored the potential of DNA methylation patterns, histone modifications, and non-coding RNA-mediation as fingerprints for selecting rabbits with desirable IMF levels. Additionally, we explored the possibility of manipulating the epigenetic landscape through nutraceuticals interventions to promote favorable IMF depositions. By comprehensively deciphering the genomic and epigenetic terrain of rabbit intramuscular fat regulation, this study aims to assess the existing knowledge regarding the genetic and epigenetic factors that control the deposition of intramuscular fat in rabbits. By doing so, we identified gaps in the current research, and suggested potential areas for further investigation that would enhance the quality of rabbit meat. This can enable breeders to develop targeted breeding strategies, optimize nutrition, and create innovative interventions to enhance the quality of rabbit meat, meet consumer demands and increase market competitiveness.

Ablation of LKB1 gene changes the lipid profiles of goat intramuscular fat and enhances polyunsaturated fatty acids deposition

The content and composition of intramuscular fat (IMF) affect the cooked meat palatability such as tenderness and juiciness. Thus, elucidation of lipid deposition and its composition in goat IMF is necessary. Here, Jianzhou big-ear goats with higher IMF content is associated with lower mRNA level of LKB1 gene, compared with those of Chuannan black goats. Functionally, knockdown of LKB1 promoted intramuscular adipocyte lipid accumulation. Next, LC-MS/MS based pseudo target analysis found that 409 lipids existed in goat intramuscular adipocytes, of which polyunsaturated fatty acids accounted for most lipids. Compared with the control, 78 differential lipids were screened in the siLKB1 group, enriched in the triacylglycerols and fatty acids subclasses. The combined analysis between lipidomic and published transcriptomic data showed that siLKB1 enhanced polyunsaturated fatty acids synthesis through upregulation expression of HACD4. Finally, the promotion of lipid accumulation and polyunsaturated fatty acids synthesis in the LKB1 knockdown cells were partly rescued by ablation of HACD4. Collectively, these data provide a genetic target to produce PUFA enriched functional goat meat and expand new insights into improvement of meat quality.

LncBNIP3 Inhibits Bovine Intramuscular Preadipocyte Differentiation via the PI3K-Akt and PPAR Signaling Pathways

Intramuscular fat (IMF) content is an economic trait in beef cattle that improves the meat quality. Studies have highlighted the correlation between long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) and IMF development. In this study, lncBNIP3 knockdown promoted bovine intramuscular preadipocyte differentiation. RNA-seq analysis of intramuscular preadipocytes with lncBNIP3 knockdown identified 230 differentially expressed genes. The PI3K-Akt and PPAR signaling pathways were enriched. lncBNIP3 interference promoted mRNA and protein expression of key genes in PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. LncBNIP3 interference reversed the effects of an AKT-inhibitor MK-2206 on Akt protein expression and lipid droplet accumulation, promoted mRNA and protein expression of essential genes in the PPAR signaling pathway, and ameliorated the inhibitory effects of a PPARg antagonist GW9662 on lipid accumulation. Therefore, lncBNIP3 inhibition of bovine intramuscular preadipocyte differentiation is likely mediated via the PI3K-Akt and PPAR signaling pathways. This study identified a valuable lncRNA with functional roles in IMF accumulation and revealed new strategies to improve beef quality.

Profiling and functional analysis of circular RNAs in yaks intramuscular fat

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a new class of endogenous RNA regulating gene expression. However, the regulatory mechanisms of lipid metabolism in yaks involved in circRNAs remain poorly understood. The IMF plays a crucial role in the quality of yak meat, to greatly improve the meat quality. In this study, the fatty acid profiles of yak IMF were determined and circRNAs were sequenced. The results showed that the total of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content of adult yak muscle was significantly higher than that in yak calves (p < 0.05). A total of 29,021 circRNAs were identified in IMF tissue, notably, 99 differentially expressed (DE) circRNAs were identified, to be associated with fat deposition, the most significant of which were circ_12686, circ_6918, circ_3582, ci_106 and ci_123 (A circRNA composed of exons is labelled 'circRNA' and a circRNA composed of introns is labelled 'ciRNA'). KEGG pathway enrichment analysis showed that the differential circRNAs were enriched in four pathways associated with fat deposition (e.g., the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor signalling, fatty acid degradation, sphingolipid metabolism and sphingolipid signalling pathways). We also constructed co-expression networks of DE circRNA-miRNA using high-throughput sequencing in IMF deposition, from which revealed that ci_106 target binding of bta-miR-130b, bta-miR-148a, bta-miR-15a, bta-miR-34a, bta-miR-130a, bta-miR-17-5p and ci_123 target binding of bta-miR-150 were involved in adipogenesis. The study revealed the role of the circRNAs in the IMF deposition in yak and its influence on meat quality the findings demonstrated the circRNA differences in the development of IMF with the increase of age, thus providing a theoretical basis for further research on the molecular mechanism of IMF deposition in yaks.

Identification of porcine fast/slow myogenic exosomes and their regulatory effects on lipid accumulation in intramuscular adipocytes

BACKGROUND

Pork quality is affected by the type of muscle fibers, which is closely related to meat color, tenderness and juiciness. Exosomes are tiny vesicles with a diameter of approximately 30-150 nm that are secreted by cells and taken up by recipient cells to mediate communication. Exosome-mediated muscle-fat tissue crosstalk is a newly discovered mechanism that may have an important effect on intramuscular fat deposition and with that on meat quality. Various of adipose tissue-derived exosomes have been discovered and identified, but the identification and function of muscle exosomes, especially porcine fast/slow myotube exosomes, remain unclear. Here, we first isolated and identified exosomes secreted from porcine extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and soleus (SOL), which represent fast and slow muscle, respectively, and further explored their effects on lipid accumulation in longissimus dorsi adipocytes.

RESULTS

Porcine SOL-derived exosomes (SOL-EXO) and EDL-derived exosomes (EDL-EXO) were first identified and their average particle sizes were approximately 84 nm with double-membrane disc- shapes as observed via transmission electron microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Moreover, the intramuscular fat content of the SOL was greater than that of the EDL at 180 days of age, because SOL intramuscular adipocytes had a stronger lipid-accumulating capacity than those of the EDL. Raman spectral analysis revealed that SOL-EXO protein content was much greater than that of EDL-EXO. Proteomic sequencing identified 72 proteins that were significantly differentially expressed between SOL-EXO and EDL-EXO, 31 of which were downregulated and 41 of which were upregulated in SOL-EXO.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that muscle-fat tissue interactions occur partly via SOL-EXO promoting adipogenic activity of intramuscular adipocytes.

Integrated meta-omics reveals the regulatory landscape involved in lipid metabolism between pig breeds

BACKGROUND

Domesticated pigs serve as an ideal animal model for biomedical research and also provide the majority of meat for human consumption in China. Porcine intramuscular fat content associates with human health and diseases and is essential in pork quality. The molecular mechanisms controlling lipid metabolism and intramuscular fat accretion across tissues in pigs, and how these changes in response to pig breeds, remain largely unknown.

RESULTS

We surveyed the tissue-resident cell types of the porcine jejunum, colon, liver, and longissimus dorsi muscle between Lantang and Landrace breeds by single-cell RNA sequencing. Combining lipidomics and metagenomics approaches, we also characterized gene signatures and determined key discriminating markers of lipid digestibility, absorption, conversion, and deposition across tissues in two pig breeds. In Landrace, lean-meat swine mainly exhibited breed-specific advantages in lipid absorption and oxidation for energy supply in small and large intestinal epitheliums, nascent high-density lipoprotein synthesis for reverse cholesterol transport in enterocytes and hepatocytes, bile acid formation, and secretion for fat emulsification in hepatocytes, as well as intestinal-microbiota gene expression involved in lipid accumulation product. In Lantang, obese-meat swine showed a higher synthesis capacity of chylomicrons responsible for high serum triacylglycerol levels in small intestinal epitheliums, the predominant characteristics of lipid absorption in muscle tissue, and greater intramuscular adipcytogenesis potentials from muscular fibro-adipogenic progenitor subpopulation.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings enhanced our understanding of the cellular biology of lipid metabolism and opened new avenues to improve animal production and human diseases. Video Abstract.

Comparative alternative polyadenylation profiles in differentiated adipocytes of subcutaneous and intramuscular fat tissue in cattle

Alternative polyadenylation (APA) is a key molecular mechanism involved in the post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression, which has been proven to play a critical role in cell differentiation. In the present study, we performed IVT-SAPAS sequencing to profile the dynamic changes of APA sites in bovine subcutaneous preadipocytes and intramuscular preadipocytes during adipogenesis. A total of 52621 high quality APA sites were identified in preadipocytes and adipocytes. Compared with preadipocytes, the increased usage of canonical AATAAA was observed in the cell-biased APA sites of adipocytes. Furthermore, 1933 and 2140 differentially expressed APA (DE-APA) sites, as well as 341 and 337 untranslated region-APA (UTR-APA) switching genes were identified in subcutaneous preadipocytes and intramuscular preadipocytes during adipogenesis, respectively. The UTR-APA switching genes showed divergent trends in preadipocytes, among which UTR-APA switching genes in intramuscular preadipocytes tended to use shorter 3'UTR for differentiation into mature adipocytes. APA events mediated by UTR-APA switching in intramuscular adipocytes were enriched in lipid synthesis and adipocyte differentiation. TRIB3, WWTR1, and INSIG1 played important roles in the differentiation of intramuscular preadipocytes. Briefly, our results provided new insights into understanding the mechanisms of bovine adipocyte differentiation.

Gga-let-7a-3p inhibits the proliferation and differentiation of chicken intramuscular preadipocytes

1. Intramuscular fat (IMF) is a key parameter for chicken meat quality. IMF deposition is driven by genetic, nutritional and management factors, with genetics being the determining factor. Previous whole transcriptome sequencing revealed that microRNA gga-let-7a-3p was related to lipid metabolism in breast muscle. This study further investigated the potential role of gga-let-7a-3p in IMF deposition.2. The mimic and inhibitor of gga-let-7a-3p were individually transfected into chicken intramuscular preadipocytes. Subsequently, the proliferation and differentiation states of the cells were detected. Transcriptome sequencing was performed on cells transfected with gga-let-7a-3p mimic.3. The results indicated that gga-let-7a-3p suppressed the mRNA levels of proliferation and differentiation-related genes, as well as the protein levels. EdU and Oil Red O assays revealed that gga-let-7a-3p restrained preadipocyte proliferation and differentiation. In addition, a total of 333 up-regulated genes and 807 down-regulated genes were identified in cells transfected with gga-let-7a-3p mimic. Using Kyoto Encyclopaedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) and Gene Ontology (GO) analysis, differential genes were found to be enriched in processes such as the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor (PPAR) signalling pathway and oxidative phosphorylation.4. The study demonstrated that gga-let-7a-3p inhibits the proliferation and differentiation of chicken intramuscular preadipocytes, which provides new understanding to further unravel the function of gga-let-7a-3p.

Single-Cell RNA Sequencing Reveals the Cellular Landscape of Longissimus Dorsi in a Newborn Suhuai Pig

The introduction of single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) technology has spurred additional advancements in analyzing the cellular composition of tissues. The longissimus dorsi (LD) in pigs serves as the primary skeletal muscle for studying meat quality in the pig industry. However, the single-cell profile of porcine LD is still in its infancy stage. In this study, we profiled the transcriptomes of 16,018 cells in the LD of a newborn Suhuai pig at single-cell resolution. Subsequently, we constructed a cellular atlas of the LD, identifying 11 distinct cell populations, including endothelial cells (24.39%), myotubes (18.82%), fibro-adipogenic progenitors (FAPs, 18.11%), satellite cells (16.74%), myoblasts (3.99%), myocytes (5.74%), Schwann cells (3.81%), smooth muscle cells (3.22%), dendritic cells (2.99%), pericytes (1.86%), and neutrophils (0.33%). CellChat was employed to deduce the cell-cell interactions by evaluating the gene expression of receptor-ligand pairs across different cell types. The results show that FAPs and pericytes are the primary signal contributors in LD. In addition, we delineated the developmental trajectory of myogenic cells and examined alterations in the expression of various marker genes and molecular events throughout various stages of differentiation. Moreover, we found that FAPs can be divided into three subclusters (NR2F2-FAPs, LPL-FAPs, and TNMD-FAPs) according to their biological functions, suggesting that the FAPs could be associated with the differentiation of tendon cell. Taken together, we constructed the cellular atlas and cell communication network in LD of a newborn Suhuai pig, and analyzed the developmental trajectory of myogenic cells and the heterogeneity of FAPs subpopulation cells. This enhances our comprehension of the molecular features involved in skeletal muscle development and the meat quality control in pigs.

Effects of Dietary Lycopene on the Growth Performance, Antioxidant Capacity, Meat Quality, Intestine Histomorphology, and Cecal Microbiota in Broiler Chickens

The experiment aimed to investigate the effects of dietary lycopene on the growth performance, antioxidant capacity, meat quality, intestine histomorphology, and cecal microbiota in broiler chickens. We randomly divided five hundred and seventy-six one-day-old male broilers into four groups each with six replicates and 24 chickens in each replicate. The control group (CG) was fed the basal diet, and the other groups were given powder lycopene of 10, 20, and 30 mg/kg lycopene (LP10, LP20, and LP30, respectively). Compared with the control group, (1) the dietary lycopene increased (p = 0.001) the average daily gain and decreased (p = 0.033) the feed conversion ratio in the experimental groups; (2) the glutathione peroxidase enzyme contents in LP20 were higher (p =< 0.001) in myocardium; (3) the crude protein contents were higher (p = 0.007) in the group treated with 30 mg/kg dietary lycopene; (4) the jejunum villous height was higher (p = 0.040) in LP20; (5) the Unclassified-f-Ruminococcaceae relative abundance was significantly higher (p = 0.043) in LP20. In this study, adding 20 mg/kg dietary lycopene to the broiler chickens' diets improved the growth performance, antioxidant capacity, meat quality, intestine histomorphology, and cecal microbiota in broiler chickens.

Alternative polyadenylation landscape of longissimus dorsi muscle with high and low intramuscular fat content in cattle

Intramuscular fat content is one of the most important factors affecting beef quality. However, the role of alternative polyadenylation (APA) in intramuscular fat deposition remains unclear. We compared APA events in muscle samples from high and low intramuscular fat (IMF) cattle, based on RNA-seq data. A total of 363 significant APAs were identified. Notably, the number of shortened 3'UTR events exceeded the number of lengthened 3'UTR events, and genes associated with shortened 3'UTR events were enriched in fatty acid metabolism-related pathways. Most APA events had alternative 3'UTR (aUTR) lengths of 200 to 300 bp. As the 3'UTR lengthened, the aUTR also lengthened (R2 = 0.79). These findings indicate that genes with longer 3'UTRs are more likely to be regulated by APA in the muscle of cattle with high IMF. To determine whether the identified APA events drove alterations in the expression of fat deposition-related genes, we analyzed the relationship between APA events and differentially expressed genes and identified several genes critical for fat deposition (e.g., PFKL and SLC1A5). Since miRNAs usually bind to the 3'UTR region of protein-coding genes and affect gene expression, we constructed an miRNA-APA network to detect several key miRNAs that may regulate fat deposition. We identified 10 important miRNAs that affect changes in IMF content, which may be gained (gained miRNA-binding sites) or lost (lost miRNA-binding sites) owing to 187 differential APA events. Our study characterized the APA profiles of cattle with high and low intramuscular fat content and provided further insights into the relationship between APA, miRNA, and fat deposition.

Goat miR-92a-3p Targets APOL6 Gene to Regulate the Differentiation of Intramuscular Precursor Adipocytes

The quality of lamb meat is positively correlated with intramuscular fat content. In recent years, a large number of studies have shown that miRNAs play an important role in the proliferation and differentiation of adipocytes. In this study, we aimed to explore the effect of miR-92a-3p on the differentiation of goat intramuscular preadipocytes. The results showed that the expression level of miR-92a-3p was low in the early stage of differentiation, reached the highest level on the third day of differentiation, and then decreased. And miR-92a-3p can inhibit the accumulation of lipid droplets and down-regulate the determinants of adipogenic differentiation. Mechanistically, by predicting target genes, we found that miR-92a-3p affects the differentiation of goat intramuscular preadipocytes and the accumulation of lipid droplets by regulating the expression of goat gene APOL6. This study provides important new information to better understand the relationship between miRNAs and the differentiation of goat intramuscular preadipocytes, thus providing a new reference for goat intramuscular adipogenesis.

Alternative Polyadenylation of Malic Enzyme 1 Is Essential for Accelerated Adipogenesis

Understanding the mechanism of adipogenesis is an important basis for improving meat quality traits of livestock. Alternative polyadenylation (APA) is a vital mechanism to regulate the expression of eukaryotic genes. However, how the individual APA functions in adipogenesis remains elusive. This study was intended to investigate the effect of malic enzyme 1 (ME1) APA on adipogenesis. Here, intracellular lipid droplets were stained using Oil red O. 3' RACE was used to verify APA events of the ME1 gene. Interactions between ME1 3' untranslated region (3' UTR)-APA isoforms and miRNAs, as well as differential expression of isoforms, were examined using dual-luciferase reporter and molecular experiments. The mechanism of ME1 APA on adipogenesis was explored by gain and loss of function assays. In this study, two ME1 isoforms with different 3' UTR lengths were detected during adipogenesis. Moreover, the ME1 isoform with a short 3' UTR was significantly upregulated compared with the one with a long 3' UTR. Mechanistically, only the long ME1 isoform was targeted by miR-153-3p to attenuate adipogenesis, while the short one escaped the regulation of miR-153-3p to accelerate adipogenesis. Our results reveal a novel mechanism of ME1 APA in regulating adipogenesis.

Screening of lncRNA profiles during intramuscular adipogenic differentiation in longissimus dorsi and semitendinosus muscles in pigs

Intramuscular fat content is an important factor that determines meat quality in pigs. In recent years, epigenetic regulation has increasingly studied the physiological model of intramuscular fat. Although long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) play essential roles in various biological processes, their role in intramuscular fat deposition in pigs remains largely unknown. In this study, intramuscular preadipocytes in the longissimus dorsi and semitendinosus of Large White pigs were isolated and induced into adipogenic differentiation in vitro. High-throughput RNA-seq was carried out to estimate the expression of lncRNAs at 0, 2 and 8 days post-differentiation. At this stage, 2135 lncRNAs were identified. KEGG analysis showed that the differentially expressed lncRNAs were common in pathways involved with adipogenesis and lipid metabolism. lnc_000368 was found to gradually increase during the adipogenic process. Reverse-transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction and a western blot revealed that the knockdown of lnc_000368 significantly repressed the expression of adipogenic genes and lipolytic genes. As a result, lipid accumulation in porcine intramuscular adipocytes was impaired by the silencing of lnc_000368. Overall, our study identified a genome-wide lncRNA profile related to porcine intramuscular fat deposition, and the results suggest that lnc_000368 is a potential target gene that might be targeted in pig breeding in the future.

Stem cell-based strategies and challenges for production of cultivated meat

Cultivated meat scale-up and industrial production will require multiple stable cell lines from different species to recreate the organoleptic and nutritional properties of meat from livestock. In this Review, we explore the potential of stem cells to create the major cellular components of cultivated meat. By using developments in the fields of tissue engineering and biomedicine, we explore the advantages and disadvantages of strategies involving primary adult and pluripotent stem cells for generating cell sources that can be grown at scale. These myogenic, adipogenic or extracellular matrix-producing adult stem cells as well as embryonic or inducible pluripotent stem cells are discussed for their proliferative and differentiation capacity, necessary for cultivated meat. We examine the challenges for industrial scale-up, including differentiation and culture protocols, as well as genetic modification options for stem cell immortalization and controlled differentiation. Finally, we discuss stem cell-related safety and regulatory challenges for bringing cultivated meat to the marketplace.

White Adipose Tissue Heterogeneity in the Single-Cell Era: From Mice and Humans to Cattle

Adipose tissue is a major modulator of metabolic function by regulating energy storage and by acting as an endocrine organ through the secretion of adipokines. With the advantage of next-generation sequencing-based single-cell technologies, adipose tissue has been studied at single-cell resolution, thus providing unbiased insight into its molecular composition. Recent single-cell RNA sequencing studies in human and mouse models have dissected the transcriptional cellular heterogeneity of subcutaneous (SAT), visceral (VAT), and intramuscular (IMAT) white adipose tissue depots and revealed unique populations of adipose tissue progenitor cells, mature adipocytes, immune cell, vascular cells, and mesothelial cells that play direct roles on adipose tissue function and the development of metabolic disorders. In livestock species, especially in bovine, significant gaps of knowledge remain in elucidating the roles of adipose tissue cell types and depots on driving the pathogenesis of metabolic disorders and the distinct fat deposition in VAT, SAT, and IMAT in meat animals. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the transcriptional and functional cellular diversity of white adipose tissue revealed by single-cell approaches and highlights the depot-specific function of adipose tissue in different mammalian species, with a particular focus on recent findings and future implications in cattle.

MiR-196b-3p and miR-450b-3p are key regulators of adipogenesis in porcine intramuscular and subcutaneous adipocytes

BACKGROUND

As components of white adipose tissue, porcine intramuscular (IM) and subcutaneous (SC) adipocytes undergo similar differentiation and adipogenesis processes. However, the adipogenic capacity of IM adipocytes is weaker than that of SC adipocytes. Identifying key regulators underlying this difference between IM and SC adipocytes will benefit pig breeding.

RESULTS

In this study, we used BGISEQ-500 sequencing technology to analyze the expression of small RNAs in primary cultured IM and SC adipocytes on day 8 after adipogenic induction, and found 32-fold higher miR-196b-3p expression, as well as 8-fold lower miR-450b-3p expression in IM adipocytes than in SC adipocytes. Functional studies revealed that miR-196b-3p inhibits adipogenesis by targeting CD47 via the AMPK signaling pathway, and its effect was attenuated by the specific p-AMPKα activator AICAR. We also found that miR-450b-3p promotes adipogenesis by targeting SIRT1 via the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, and its effect was weakened by the Wnt/β-catenin signaling activator LiCl.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that miR-196b-3p and miR-450b-3p are novel key regulatory factors that play opposite roles in porcine adipogenesis, helping us decipher the regulatory differences between porcine IM and SC fat deposition.

Effect of CXCL17 on Subcutaneous Preadipocytes Proliferation in Goats

The presence or absence of subcutaneous adipose accumulation will affect the energy storage, insulation resistance and metabolism of animals. Proliferation and differentiation of preadipocytes play a significant role in lipid deposition. The objective of this study was to clone the goat CXCL17 gene and investigate its potential functions on goat subcutaneous preadipocytes' proliferation by gaining or losing function in vitro. The goat CXCL17 gene was cloned by Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) and bioinformatics analysis was performed. The expression of the CXCL17 gene in the different goat tissues and adipocytes at different differentiation stages was detected by real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR (qPCR). The results showed that the cloned sequence of goat CXCL17 gene is 728 bp and the CDS region is 357 bp, encoding 118 amino acids. CXCL17 protein is located in nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria and extracellular matrix. Tissue-expression profiles revealed that CXCL17 expressed in all of the examined tissues. In visceral tissues, the highest expression level was found in lung (p < 0.01); in muscle tissues, the highest CXCL17 expression level was found in the longissimus dorsi (p < 0.01) and in adipose tissues, the highest expression level was found in subcutaneous adipose (p <0.01). Compared with those cells before differentiation, CXCL17 expression levels upregulated at 48 h (p < 0.01), 72 h (p < 0.01), 120 h (p < 0.01) and downregulated at 96 h (p < 0.01). Furthermore, the results of crystal violet staining and semi-quantitative assay showed that transfection with 1 μg CXCL17 expression plasmid reduced the cell numbers in vitro. Meanwhile, the expression of CCND1 was significantly decreased. A similar consequence happened after interfering with CXCL17 expression. However, plasmid transfected with 2 μg pEGFPN1-CXCL17 increased the number of cells in vitro. These results suggest that CXCL17 is involved in the proliferation of goat subcutaneous preadipocytes.

CircADAMTS16 Inhibits Differentiation and Promotes Proliferation of Bovine Adipocytes by Targeting miR-10167-3p

Circular RNAs (CircRNAs) are covalently closed-loop non-coding RNA (ncRNA) molecules present in eukaryotes. Numerous studies have demonstrated that circRNAs are important regulators of bovine fat deposition, but their precise mechanisms remain unclear. Previous transcriptome sequencing studies have indicated that circADAMTS16, a circRNA derived from the a disintegrin-like metalloproteinases with the thrombospondin motif 16 (ADAMTS16) gene, is high expressed in bovine adipose tissue. This gives a hint that the circRNA may be involved in the process of bovine lipid metabolism. In this study, the targeting relationship between circADAMTS16 and miR-10167-3p was verified using a dual-luciferase reporter assay. Then, the functions of circADAMTS16 and miR-10167-3p in bovine adipocytes were explored through gain-of-function and lose-of-function. The mRNA expression levels of genes were detected by real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR), and lipid droplet formation was phenotypically evaluated by Oil Red O staining. Cell proliferation and apoptosis were detected using CCK-8, EdU, and flow cytometry. We demonstrated that circADAMTS16 targeted binding to miR-10167-3p. The up-regulation of circADAMTS16 inhibited the differentiation of bovine preadipocytes, and the overexpression of miR-10167-3p promoted the differentiation of bovine preadipocytes. Meanwhile, CCK-8 and EdU results indicated that circADAMTS16 promoted adipocyte proliferation. Subsequently, flow cytometry analysis showed that circADAMTS16 promoted cell transition from G0/G1 phase to S phase, and inhibited cell apoptosis. However, up-regulation of miR-10167-3p inhibited cell proliferation and promoted apoptosis. Briefly, circADAMTS16 inhibited the differentiation and promotes the proliferation of bovine adipocytes by targeting miR-10167-3p during bovine fat deposition, which provides new insights into the mechanism of circRNAs regulation of beef quality.

Research progress of non-coding RNAs regulation on intramuscular adipocytes in domestic animals

Intramuscular fat (IMF) is the main determinant of the economic value of domestic animal meat, and has a vital impact on the sensory quality characteristics, while the content of IMF is mainly determined by the size and number of intramuscular adipocytes. In recent years, due to the development of sequencing technology and omics technology, a large number of non-coding RNAs have been identified in intramuscular adipocytes. Non-coding RNAs are a kind of RNA regulatory factors with biological functions but without translation function, which mainly include microRNAs (miRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and circular RNAs (circRNAs). These non-coding RNAs regulate the key genes of intramuscular adipocyte growth and development at post-transcriptional level through a variety of regulatory mechanisms, and affect the number and size of intramuscular adipocytes, thus affecting the content of IMF. Here, the review summarizes the candidate non-coding RNAs (miRNAs, lncRNAs, circRNAs) and genes involved in the regulation of intramuscular adipocytes, the related regulation mechanism and signaling pathways, in order to provide reference for further clarifying the molecular regulation mechanism of non-coding RNAs on intramuscular adipocytes in domestic animals.

PDZK1-Interacting Protein 1(PDZKIP1) Inhibits Goat Subcutaneous Preadipocyte Differentiation through Promoting Autophagy

PDZK1IP1 is highly expressed in tumor tissue and has been identified as a tumor biomarker. However, the role of PDZK1IP1 in goat subcutaneous preadipocyte differentiation remains largely unknown. The molecular mechanism of autophagy in regulating the differentiation of goat subcutaneous preadipocytes has not been clarified yet. In our study, PDZK1IP1 gain of function and loss of function were performed to reveal its functions in preadipocyte differentiation and autophagy. Our results showed that the overexpression of PDZK1IP1 inhibited the differentiation of goat subcutaneous preadipocytes, whereas it promoted autophagy. Consistently, the knockdown of PDZK1IP1 demonstrated the opposite tendency. Next, we investigated whether PDZK1IP1 inhibited the differentiation of goat preadipocytes by regulating autophagy. We found that inhibiting autophagy can rescue the PDZK1IP1-induced differentiation restraint in goat subcutaneous preadipocytes. In conclusion, PDZK1IP1 acts as a regulator of adipogenesis, and inhibits goat subcutaneous preadipocyte differentiation through promoting autophagy. Our results will contribute to further understanding the role and mechanism of PDZK1IP1 in controlling adipogenesis.

Mutation c.-379 C>T in DGAT1 affects intramyocellular lipid content by altering MYOD1 binding affinity

Intramuscular fat (IMF) is one of the most important indexes of pork taste quality. Diacylglycerol acyltransferase 1 (DGAT1), belonging to the acyl-coenzyme A: DGAT enzymes family, is a rate-limiting enzyme responsible for the final step of triglyceride (TG) synthesis. It is involved in TG storage in skeletal muscle; however, the underlying mechanism is not well understood. This study aimed to uncover functional mutations that can influence DGAT1 expression and consequently affect IMF deposition in pork. Two experimental groups containing individuals with high and low IMF content (6.23 ± 0.20 vs. 1.25 ± 0.05, p < 0.01) were formed from 260 Duroc × Large White × Yorkshire (D × L × Y) cross-bred pigs. A novel SNP c.-379 C>T was uncovered in the DGAT1 gene using comparative sequencing with pool DNA of high- and low-IMF groups. The IMF content of CT genotype individuals (3.19 ± 0.11%) was higher than that of CC genotype individuals (2.86 ± 0.11%) when analyzing 260 D × L × Y pigs (p < 0.05). The DGAT1 expression levels revealed a significant positive correlation with IMF content (r = 0.33, p < 0.01). Luciferase assay revealed that the DGAT1 promoter with the c.-379 T allele has a higher transcription activity than that bearing the C allele in C2C12 myoblast cells, but not in 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes. Online prediction followed by chromatin immunoprecipitation-polymerase chain reaction assay confirmed that myogenic determination factor 1 (MYOD1) binds to the DGAT1 promoter with the c.-379 C allele but not the T allele. In vitro experiments demonstrated that MYOD1 represses DGAT1 transcription and lipogenesis. As a muscle-specific transcription factor, MYOD1 can inhibit the transcription of DGAT1 with the c.-379 C allele in muscle cells. However, in the absence of MYOD1 binding to the mutated DGAT1 promoter with the c.-379 T allele, DGAT1 expresses at a higher level in the muscle cells of the c.-379 T genotype, leading to more intramyocellular lipid accumulation than in the muscle cells of the c.-379 C genotype. The SNP c.-379 C>T in the promoter region of the DGAT1 gene provides a promising molecular marker for improving pork IMF content without affecting other fat depots.

Long Non-Coding RNA BNIP3 Inhibited the Proliferation of Bovine Intramuscular Preadipocytes via Cell Cycle

The intramuscular fat (or marbling fat) content is an essential economic trait of beef cattle and improves the flavor and palatability of meat. Several studies have highlighted the correlation between long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and intramuscular fat development; however, the precise molecular mechanism remains unknown. Previously, through a high-throughput sequencing analysis, we found a lncRNA and named it a long non-coding RNA BNIP3 (lncBNIP3). The 5' RACE and 3' RACE explored 1945 bp total length of lncBNIP3, including 1621 bp of 5'RACE, and 464 bp of 3'RACE. The nucleoplasmic separation and FISH results explored the nuclear localization of lncBNIP3. Moreover, the tissue expression of lncBNIP3 was higher in the longissimus dorsi muscle, followed by intramuscular fat. Furthermore, down-regulation of lncBNIP3 increased the 5-Ethynyl-2'- deoxyuridine (EdU)-EdU-positive cells. The flow cytometry results showed that the number of cells in the S phase was significantly higher in preadipocytes transfected with si-lncBNIP3 than in the control group (si-NC). Similarly, CCK8 results showed that the number of cells after transfection of si-lncBNIP3 was significantly higher than in the control group. In addition, the mRNA expressions of proliferative marker genes CyclinB1 (CCNB1) and Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen (PCNA) in the si-lncBNIP3 group were significantly higher than in the control group. The Western Blot (WB) results also showed that the protein expression level of PCNA transfection of si-lncBNIP3 was significantly higher than in the control group. Similarly, the enrichment of lncBNIP3 significantly decreased the EdU-positive cells in the bovine preadipocytes. The results of flow cytometry and CCK8 assay also showed that overexpression of lncBNIP3 inhibited the proliferation of bovine preadipocytes. In addition, the overexpression of lncBNIP3 significantly inhibited the mRNA expressions of CCNB1 and PCNA. The WB results showed that the overexpression of lncBNIP3 significantly inhibited the expression of the CCNB1 protein level. To further explore the mechanism of lncBNIP3 on the proliferation of intramuscular preadipocytes, RNA-seq was performed after interference with si-lncBNIP3, and 660 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were found, including 417 up-regulated DEGs and 243 down-regulated DEGs. The KEGG pathway analysis showed that the cell cycle was the most significant pathway for the functional enrichment of DEGs, followed by the DNA replication pathway. The RT-qPCR quantified the expression of twenty DEGs in the cell cycle. Therefore, we speculated that lncBNIP3 regulated intramuscular preadipocyte proliferation through the cell cycle and DNA replication pathways. To further confirm this hypothesis, the cell cycle inhibitor Ara-C was used to inhibit DNA replication of the S phase in intramuscular preadipocytes. Herein, Ara-C and si-lncBNIP3 were simultaneously added to the preadipocytes, and the CCK8, flow cytometry, and EdU assays were performed. The results showed that the si-lncBNIP3 could rescue the inhibitory effect of Ara-C in the bovine preadipocyte proliferation. In addition, lncBNIP3 could bind to the promoter of cell division control protein 6 (CDC6), and down-regulation of lncBNIP3 promoted the transcription activity and the expression of CDC6. Therefore, the inhibitory effect of lncBNIP3 on cell proliferation might be understood through the cell cycle pathway and CDC6 expression. This study provided a valuable lncRNA with functional roles in intramuscular fat accumulation and revealed new strategies for improving beef quality.

Differentiation and Maturation of Muscle and Fat Cells in Cultivated Seafood: Lessons from Developmental Biology

Cultivated meat, also known as cultured or cell-based meat, is meat produced directly from cultured animal cells rather than from a whole animal. Cultivated meat and seafood have been proposed as a means of mitigating the substantial harms associated with current production methods, including damage to the environment, antibiotic resistance, food security challenges, poor animal welfare, and-in the case of seafood-overfishing and ecological damage associated with fishing and aquaculture. Because biomedical tissue engineering research, from which cultivated meat draws a great deal of inspiration, has thus far been conducted almost exclusively in mammals, cultivated seafood suffers from a lack of established protocols for producing complex tissues in vitro. At the same time, fish such as the zebrafish Danio rerio have been widely used as model organisms in developmental biology. Therefore, many of the mechanisms and signaling pathways involved in the formation of muscle, fat, and other relevant tissue are relatively well understood for this species. The same processes are understood to a lesser degree in aquatic invertebrates. This review discusses the differentiation and maturation of meat-relevant cell types in aquatic species and makes recommendations for future research aimed at recapitulating these processes to produce cultivated fish and shellfish.

Key circRNAs from goat: discovery, integrated regulatory network and their putative roles in the differentiation of intramuscular adipocytes

BACKGROUND

The procession of preadipocytes differentiation into mature adipocytes involves multiple cellular and signal transduction pathways. Recently. a seirces of noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), including circular RNAs (circRNAs) were proved to play important roles in regulating differentiation of adipocytes.

RESULT

In this study, we aimed to identificate the potential circRNAs in the early and late stages of goat intramuscular adipocytes differentiation. Using bioinformatics methods to predict their biological functions and map the circRNA-miRNA interaction network. Over 104 million clean reads in goat intramuscular preadipocytes and adipocytes were mapped, of which16 circRNAs were differentially expressed (DE-circRNAs). Furthermore, we used real-time fluorescent quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR) technology to randomly detect the expression levels of 8 circRNAs among the DE-circRNAs, and our result verifies the accuracy of the RNA-seq data. From the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis of the DE-circRNAs, two circRNAs, circ_0005870 and circ_0000946, were found in Focal adhesion and PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. Then we draw the circRNA-miRNA interaction network and obtained the miRNAs that possibly interact with circ_0005870 and circ_0000946. Using TargetScan, miRTarBase and miR-TCDS online databases, we further obtained the mRNAs that may interact with the miRNAs, and generated the final circRNA-miRNA-mRNA interaction network. Combined with the following GO (Gene Ontology) and KEGG enrichment analysis, we obtained 5 key mRNAs related to adipocyte differentiation in our interaction network, which are FOXO3(forkhead box O3), PPP2CA (protein phosphatase 2 catalytic subunit alpha), EEIF4E (eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4), CDK6 (cyclin dependent kinase 6) and ACVR1 (activin A receptor type 1).

CONCLUSIONS

By using Illumina HiSeq and online databases, we generated the final circRNA-miRNA-mRNA interaction network that have valuable functions in adipocyte differentiation. Our work serves as a valuable genomic resource for in-depth exploration of the molecular mechanism of ncRNAs interaction network regulating adipocyte differentiation.

Comparison of carcass traits and nutritional profile in two different broiler-type duck lines

Cherry Valley ducks (CVDs) and White Kaiya ducks (WKDs) are judged to be fast- and slow-growing lines, respectively. To investigate the carcass traits and nutritional profile at their marketable ages, 12 birds (38 days for CVDs, n = 6; 56 days for WKDs, n = 6) were randomly selected and slaughtered. Indicators such as breast muscle weight, shear force, and proximate composition were comprehensively detected. Although the carcass and breast muscle weight in WKDs were significantly lower, remarkably higher intramuscular fat and tenderness and less moisture content were observed in WKDs. Besides, WKDs contained higher contents of Cu, Zn, and Ca, whereas CVDs contained higher leucine (Leu) and histidine (His) compositions (P < 0.01). Moreover, higher monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) along with lower saturated fatty acids (SFAs) were detected in WKDs (P < 0.01). Taken together, despite light carcass and breast muscle weight, WKDs had advantages in nutritional compositions except for amino acid constituents, including intramuscular fat, MUFAs, and PUFAs, as well as Cu, Zn, and Ca. These data would not only provide genetic resources for breeding new duck lines but also offer a useful reference for making decisions on high-nutrient meat consumption.

miR-34a Regulates Lipid Droplet Deposition in 3T3-L1 and C2C12 Cells by Targeting LEF1

Intramuscular fat (IMF) content plays a key role in improving the flavor and palatability of pork. The IMF content varies between species, breeds, and individuals of the same breed. Hence, it is necessary to elucidate the mechanisms of IMF deposition to improve pork quality. Herein, the IMF content in the longissimus dorsi muscles of 29 Laiwu pigs was detected and divided into two groups, the H group (IMF > 12%) and the L group (IMF < 5%). RNA sequencing analysis showed 24 differentially expressed (DE) miRNA, and GO and KEGG analysis demonstrated that the DE miRNAs were significantly enriched in lipid metabolic process, lipid storage, Wnt, mTOR, and PPAR signaling pathways. miR-34a was found to be increased in the H group and 3T3-L1-derived adipocytes, while Lef1 was decreased. Luciferase reporter assays demonstrated that Lef1 was a potential target of miR-34a. Mechanism analysis revealed that miR-34a could increase lipid droplet deposition in 3T3-L1 and C2C12 cells by dampening the suppressive function of Lef1 on the transcription of adipogenic markers (i.e., Pparg, Cebpa, Fabp4, and Plin1). Moreover, overexpression of miR-34a could enhance the lipid deposition in the co-culture system of 3T3-L1 and C2C12 cells as well as in C2C12 cells cultured with conditioned medium from the progress of adipocyte differentiation. Taken together, our study indicated that miR-34a was an important positive modulator in the regulation of fatty metabolism and fat deposition by inhibiting the suppressive function of Lef1. These results might provide insight for the exploration of potential strategies to promote intramuscular fat deposition in livestock.

Technological and structural aspects of scaffold manufacturing for cultured meat: recent advances, challenges, and opportunities

In vitro cultured meat is an emerging area of research focus with an innovative approach through tissue engineering (i.e., cellular engineering) to meet the global food demand. The manufacturing of lab-cultivated meat is an innovative business that alleviates life-threatening environmental issues concerning public health and animal well-being on the global platform. There has been a noteworthy advancement in cultivating artificial meat, but still, there are numerous challenges that impede the swift headway of lab-grown meat production at a commercially large scale. In this review, we focus on the manufacturing of edible scaffolds for cultured meat production. In brief, first an introduction to cultivating artificial meat and its current scenario in the market is provided. Further, a discussion on the understanding of composition, cellular, and molecular communications in muscle tissue is presented, which are vital to scaling up the production of lab-grown meat. In continuation, the major components (e.g., cells, biomaterial scaffolds, and their manufacturing technologies, media, and potential bioreactors) for cultured meat production are conferred followed by a comprehensive discussion on the most recent advances in lab-cultured meat. Finally, existing challenges and opportunities including future research perspectives for scaling-up cultured meat production are discussed with conclusive interpretations.

miR-381-3p Inhibits Intramuscular Fat Deposition through Targeting FABP3 by ceRNA Regulatory Network

Intramuscular fat (IMF) deposition is an important determinant of pork quality and a complex process facilitated by non-coding ceRNAs. In this study, 52 Berkshire × Anqing Sixwhite crossbred pigs were slaughtered to measure eight carcass and pork quality traits. Whole-transcriptome sequencing analysis was performed using longissimus dorsi samples of six low- and high-IMF samples; 34 ceRNA networks, based on 881, 394, 158 differentially expressed (DE) lncRNAs, miRNAs, and mRNAs, were constructed. Following weighted gene co-expression network analysis between the low and high IMF, only one ceRNA, lncRNA4789/miR-381-3p/FABP3, that showed similar DE trend in longissimus dorsi tissue was retained. Dual-luciferase reporter assays further indicated that FABP3 was a direct, functional target of miR-381-3p, where miR-381-3p overexpression inhibited the mRNA and protein expression of FABP3. In addition, overexpressed lncRNA4789 attenuated the effect of miR-381-3p on FABP3 by sponging miR-381-3p. Cell function verification experiment demonstrated that miR-381-3p suppressed IMF deposition by inhibiting preadipocyte cell differentiation and lipid droplet deposition via the suppression of FABP3 expression in the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor signalling pathway, whereas lncRNA4789 rescued FABP3 expression by sponging miR-381-3p. Our study may aid in identifying novel molecular markers for its optimization in IMF which is of importance in breeding for improving pork quality.

Association between rumen microbiota and marbling grade in Hu sheep

The marbling fat regulates the flavor of mutton and measures the fat density in the loin eye and is the most important parameter of carcass grading. The objective of this study was to explore the relationship of rumen microbiota and mutton marbling grade. One hundred and eighty-seven feedlot-finished Hu male lambs (Age: 180 day; Final BW: 46.32 ± 6.03 kg) were slaughtered, and ruminal contents and marbling grade were collected. Ruminal microbial DNA extraction and 16S rRNA gene sequencing was performed to investigate microbial composition and to predict microbial metabolic pathways. The animal cohort was then grouped based on marbling grades [low marbling (LM), marbling grade ≤ 1; Medium marbling (MM), 1 < marbling grade ≤ 3; High Marbling (HM), 3 < marbling grade ≤ 5] and intramuscular fat-associated microorganisms were pinpointed using LEfSe and random forest classification model. Intramuscular fat content had significantly differences among the three groups (P < 0.05), and was significantly correlated with VFAs profiling. HM sheep showed a higher abundance of one bacterial taxon (Kandleria), and two taxa were overrepresented in the MM sheep (Pseudobutyrivibrio and Monoglobus), respectively. In addition, the main intramuscular fat deposition pathway was found to involve peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) fatty acid synthesis. By studying the effect of the ruminal microbiome on the marbling of sheep, the present study provides insights into the production of high-quality mutton.

Identification of potential miRNA-mRNA regulatory network and the key miRNAs in intramuscular and subcutaneous adipose

Intramuscular fat (IMF) is an important indicator for evaluating meat quality. Breeds with high IMF content are often accompanied by high subcutaneous fat (SCF), severely affecting the meat rate of pigs. Studying the mechanisms of miRNAs related to lipogenesis and lipid metabolism has important implications for pig breeding. We constructed two small RNA libraries from intramuscular and subcutaneous fat to evaluate the patterns of lipogenesis in Laiwu pig, a Chinese breed. A total of 286 differentially expressed miRNAs (DEmiRNAs), including 193 known miRNA and 93 novel miRNAs, were identified from two types of adipose. GO and KEGG enrichment analysis for DEmiRNAs showed that their target genes involved in many adipogenesis and lipid metabolism biological processes and signaling pathways, such as Wnt signaling pathway,MAPK signaling pathway, Hippo signaling pathway, PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, Melanogenesis, Signaling pathways regulating pluripotency of stem cells and so on. Then, we constructed a miRNA-mRNA interaction network to find out which miRNAs were the key miRNAs of regulation in Wnt signaling pathway. In this pathway, miR-331-3p, miR-339-5p, miR-874 and novel346_mature target PPARD, WNT10B, RSPO3, WNT2B. This study provides a theoretical basis for further understanding the post-transcriptional regulation mechanism of meat quality formation and predicting and treating diseases caused by ectopic fat.

Krüppel-like factors family regulation of adipogenic markers genes in bovine cattle adipogenesis

Intramuscular fat (IMF) content is a crucial determinant of meat quality traits in livestock. A network of transcription factors act in concert to regulate adipocyte formation and differentiation, which in turn influences intramuscular fat. Several genes and associated transcription factors have been reported to influence lipogenesis and adipogenesis during fetal and subsequent growth stage. Specifically in cattle, Krüppel-like factors (KLFs), which represents a family of transcription factors, have been reported to be involved in adipogenic differentiation and development. KLFs are a relatively large group of zinc-finger transcription factors that have a variety of functions in addition to adipogenesis. In mammals, the participation of KLFs in cell development and differentiation is well known. Specifically in the context of adipogenesis, KLFs function either as positive (KLF4, KLF5, KLF6, KLF8, KLF9, KLF10, KLF11, KLF12, KLF13, KLF14 and KLF15) or negative organizers (KLF2, KLF3 and KLF7), by a variety of different mechanisms such as crosstalk with C/EBP and PPARγ. In this review, we aim to summarize the potential functions of KLFs in regulating adipogenesis and associated pathways in cattle. Furthermore, the function of known bovine adipogenic marker genes, and associated transcription factors that regulate the expression of these marker genes is also summarized. Overall, this review will provide an overview of marker genes known to influence bovine adipogenesis and regulation of expression of these genes, to provide insights into leveraging these genes and transcription factors to enhance breeding programs, especially in the context of IMF deposition and meat quality.

Comparative analysis of differentially abundant proteins between high and low intramuscular fat content groups in donkeys

Intramuscular fat (IMF) is an important regulator that determines meat quality, and its content is closely related to flavor, tenderness, and juiciness. Many studies have used quantitative proteomic analysis to identify proteins associated with meat quality traits in livestock, however, the potential candidate proteins that influence IMF in donkey muscle are not fully understood. In this study, we performed quantitative proteomic analysis, with tandem-mass-tagged (TMT) labeling, with samples from the longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle of the donkey. A total of 585,555 spectra were identified from the six muscle samples used in this study. In total, 20,583 peptides were detected, including 15,279 unique peptides, and 2,540 proteins were identified. We analyzed differentially abundant proteins (DAPs) between LD muscles of donkeys with high (H) and low (L) IMF content. We identified 30 DAPs between the H and L IMF content groups, of which 17 were upregulated and 13 downregulated in the H IMF group. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) functional enrichment analysis of these DAPs revealed many GO terms (e.g., bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) receptor binding) and pathways (e.g., Wnt signaling pathway and Hippo signaling pathway) involved in lipid metabolism and adipogenesis. The construction of protein-protein interaction networks identified 16 DAPs involved in these networks. Our data provide a basis for future investigations into candidate proteins involved in IMF deposition and potential new approaches to improve meat quality in the donkey.

FATP1 Exerts Variable Effects on Adipogenic Differentiation and Proliferation in Cells Derived From Muscle and Adipose Tissue

In livestock, intramuscular adipose tissue is highly valued whereas adipose tissue in other depots is considered as waste. Thus, genetic factors that favor fat deposition in intramuscular compartments over that in other adipose depots are highly desirable in meat-producing animals. Fatty acid transport 1 (FATP1) has been demonstrated to promote cellular fatty acid uptake and metabolism; however, whether it also influences cellular lipid accumulation remains unclear. In the present study, we investigated the effects of FATP1 on the differentiation and proliferation of adipocytes in five types of cells derived from muscle and adipose tissue and estimated the effects of FATP1 on intramuscular fat (IMF) deposition. We showed that FATP1 is mainly expressed in heart and muscle tissue in buffaloes as well as cells undergoing adipogenic differentiation. Importantly, we found that FATP1 promoted the adipogenic differentiation of muscle-derived cells (buffalo myocytes and intramuscular preadipocytes and mouse C2C12 cells) but did not affect, or even inhibited, that of adipose-derived cells (buffalo subcutaneous preadipocytes and mouse 3T3-L1 cells, respectively). Correspondingly, our results further indicated that FATP1 promotes IMF deposition in mice in vivo. Meanwhile, FATP1 was found to enhance the proliferative activity of all the assessed cells, except murine 3T3-L1 cells. These results provide new insights into the potential effects of FATP1 on IMF deposition, especially regarding its positive effects on meat quality in buffaloes and other livestock.

Effects of Caponization on Growth Performance and Carcass Composition of Yangzhou Ganders

Simple Summary

Goose meat is recognized as one of the healthiest foods. Goose capons are specially bred and consumed in several parts of China for their high-quality meat. However, the effects of caponization on goose growth and carcass traits have remained uninvestigated, and its molecular mechanisms remain unclear. In this research, caponization lowered testosterone and increased the total cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations in serum. Caponization increased live weights by promoting food intake and abdominal fat deposition, and improved meat quality by increasing intermuscular fat. Changes in the expression of these genes indicate that caponization increases the live weight mainly by increasing fat deposition rather than muscle growth. These results expand our understanding of the mechanisms of caponization on growth performance and fat deposition in ganders.

Abstract

In this study, we determined the effects of caponization on the growth performance and carcass traits of Yangzhou ganders. Fifty sham operated geese (the control group) and 80 caponized geese (the caponized group) were selected at 150 days of age and reared until 240 days of age. At 210 days of age, 30 geese from the caponized group were selected and fed with testosterone propionate (testosterone group). The results showed that caponization lowered testosterone and increased the total cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations in serum, live weights, average 15 day gains, and feed intake. Abdominal fat and intramuscular fat were significantly higher in the caponized geese than in the control at 240 days. Gene expression analysis showed that caponization promoted abdominal fat deposition and intermuscular fat content by upregulating the expression of adipogenic genes in the liver, adipose tissue, and muscle tissue. The high expression of SOCS3 in the hypothalamus, liver, and muscle of caponized geese suggests that caponization may lead to negative feedback regulation and leptin resistance. Changes in the expression of these genes, along with the downregulation of PAX3 in the breast muscle and MYOG in the leg muscles, indicate that caponization increases the live weight mainly by increasing fat deposition rather than muscle growth. These results expand our understanding of the mechanisms of caponization on growth performance and fat deposition in ganders.

Using Vertebrate Stem and Progenitor Cells for Cellular Agriculture, State-of-the-Art, Challenges, and Future Perspectives

Global food systems are under significant pressure to provide enough food, particularly protein-rich foods whose demand is on the rise in times of crisis and inflation, as presently existing due to post-COVID-19 pandemic effects and ongoing conflict in Ukraine and resulting in looming food insecurity, according to FAO. Cultivated meat (CM) and cultivated seafood (CS) are protein-rich alternatives for traditional meat and fish that are obtained via cellular agriculture (CA) i.e., tissue engineering for food applications. Stem and progenitor cells are the building blocks and starting point for any CA bioprocess. This review presents CA-relevant vertebrate cell types and procedures needed for their myogenic and adipogenic differentiation since muscle and fat tissue are the primary target tissues for CM/CS production. The review also describes existing challenges, such as a need for immortalized cell lines, or physical and biochemical parameters needed for enhanced meat/fat culture efficiency and ways to address them.

Circular RNA Profiling Identifies Novel circPPARA that Promotes Intramuscular Fat Deposition in Pigs

Intramuscular fat (IMF) content plays an important role in pork quality. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) implicate various biological processes; however, the regulatory mechanisms and functions of circRNAs in porcine IMF remains elusive. Hence, the study assessed the circRNA expression profiling in the longissimus dorsi muscle of pigs with high (H) and low (L) IMF content to unravel their regulatory functions in improving meat quality. The RNA sequencing analysis identified 29,732 circRNAs from six sampled pigs, most of which were exon-derived. In the muscle, 336 were differentially expressed (DE) between the H and L IMF groups; 196 circRNAs were upregulated, and 140 were downregulated. Subsequent qRT-PCR validation of 10 DE circRNAs revealed expression patterns consistent with the RNA-seq data. Gene ontology and KEGG enrichment analysis revealed that most significantly enriched DE circRNAs' host genes were linked to lipid metabolism and adipogenesis processes. The circRNA-miRNA regulatory network analysis found several circRNAs targeting miRNAs associated with adipogenesis. Finally, a novel circRNA, circPPARA, was identified with the expression positively correlated with the IMF content. Detailed analysis revealed that circPPARA was formed via head-to-tail splicing and was more stable than the linear PPARA, predominantly located in the cytoplasm. Functional studies using overexpression and siRNA constructs demonstrated that circPPARA promotes differentiation and hinders the proliferation of porcine intramuscular preadipocytes. Moreover, the dual-luciferase assay revealed that circPPARA adsorbed miR-429 and miR-200b, thereby promoting intramuscular adipogenesis in pigs. Our results identified a candidate circRNA, circPPARA, that affects porcine IMF content. The study provides knowledge of the regulatory functions of circRNAs in intramuscular adipogenesis and abundant resource for future research on circRNAs in pigs.

miR-24-3p Dominates the Proliferation and Differentiation of Chicken Intramuscular Preadipocytes by Blocking ANXA6 Expression

Intramuscular fat (IMF) is one of the crucial factors determining meat quality. IMF deposition depends on the hyperplasia and hypertrophy of intramuscular preadipocytes, in which genes and noncoding RNAs play an important regulatory role. According to previous transcriptome analysis, ANXA6 and miR-24-3p were identified as involved in lipid metabolism in breast muscle. In this study, we further investigated their function in the proliferation and differentiation of chicken intramuscular preadipocytes. The results indicated that overexpression of ANXA6 inhibited proliferation and promoted differentiation of intramuscular preadipocytes, while knockdown of ANXA6 promoted cell proliferation and inhibited adipogenic differentiation. miR-24-3p was proved to directly bind to the 3′ untranslated region (3′UTR) of ANXA6 by dual-luciferase reporter assay. The regulatory effect of miR-24-3p on the proliferation and differentiation of intramuscular preadipocytes was opposite to that of ANXA6. Besides, the overexpression vector of ANXA6 eliminated the impact of miR-24-3p mimics on intramuscular preadipocytes. In brief, we revealed that miR-24-3p promoted proliferation but inhibited differentiation of intramuscular preadipocytes by blocking ANXA6 expression, thus dominating IMF deposition in broilers. These findings may provide a novel target for improving chicken meat quality.

Novel Insights into the Differences in Nutrition Value, Gene Regulation and Network Organization between Muscles from Pasture-Fed and Barn-Fed Goats

The physiological and biochemical characters of muscles derived from pasture-fed or barn-fed black goats were detected, and RNA-seq was performed to reveal the underlying molecular mechanisms to identify how the pasture feeding affected the nutrition and flavor of the meat. We found that the branched chain amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids, and zinc in the muscle of pasture-fed goats were significantly higher than those in the barn-fed group, while the heavy metal elements, cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol were significantly lower. RNA-seq results showed that 1761 genes and 147 lncRNA transcripts were significantly differentially expressed between the pasture-fed and barn-fed group. Further analysis found that the differentially expressed genes were mainly enriched in the myogenesis and Glycerophospholipid metabolism pathway. A functional analysis of the lncRNA transcripts further highlighted the difference in fatty acid metabolism between the two feeding models. Our study provides novel insights into the gene regulation and network organization of muscles and could be potentially used for improving the quality of mutton.

Muscle-derived fibro-adipogenic progenitor cells for production of cultured bovine adipose tissue

Cultured meat is an emergent technology with the potential for significant environmental and animal welfare benefits. Accurate mimicry of traditional meat requires fat tissue; a key contributor to both the flavour and texture of meat. Here, we show that fibro-adipogenic progenitor cells (FAPs) are present in bovine muscle, and are transcriptionally and immunophenotypically distinct from satellite cells. These two cell types can be purified from a single muscle sample using a simple fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) strategy. FAPs demonstrate high levels of adipogenic potential, as measured by gene expression changes and lipid accumulation, and can be proliferated for a large number of population doublings, demonstrating their suitability for a scalable cultured meat production process. Crucially, FAPs reach a mature level of adipogenic differentiation in three-dimensional, edible hydrogels. The resultant tissue accurately mimics traditional beef fat in terms of lipid profile and taste, and FAPs thus represent a promising candidate cell type for the production of cultured fat.

Maternal undernutrition alters the skeletal muscle development and methylation of myogenic factors in goat offspring

Objective

The effects of maternal undernutrition during midgestation on muscle fiber histology, myosin heavy chain (MyHC) expression, methylation modification of myogenic factors, and the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway in the skeletal muscles of prenatal and postnatal goats were examined.

Methods

Twenty-four pregnant goats were assigned to a control (100% of the nutrients requirement, n = 12) or a restricted group (60% of the nutrients requirement, n = 12) between 45 and 100 days of gestation. Descendants were harvested at day 100 of gestation and at day 90 after birth to collect the femoris muscle tissue.

Results

Maternal undernutrition increased (p<0.05) the fiber area of the vastus muscle in the fetuses and enhanced (p<0.01) the proportions of MyHCI and MyHCIIA fibers in offspring, while the proportion of MyHCIIX fibers was decreased (p<0.01). DNA methylation at the +530 cytosine-guanine dinucleotide (CpG) site of the myogenic factor 5 (MYF5) promoter in restricted fetuses was increased (p<0.05), but the methylation of the MYF5 gene at the +274,280 CpG site and of the myogenic differentiation (MYOD) gene at the +252 CpG site in restricted kids was reduced (p<0.05). mTOR protein signals were downregulated (p<0.05) in the restricted offspring.

Conclusion

Maternal undernutrition altered the muscle fiber type in offspring, but its relationship with methylation in the promoter regions of myogenic genes needs to be elucidated.

Perspectives on scaling production of adipose tissue for food applications

With rising global demand for food proteins and significant environmental impact associated with conventional animal agriculture, it is important to develop sustainable alternatives to supplement existing meat production. Since fat is an important contributor to meat flavor, recapitulating this component in meat alternatives such as plant based and cell cultured meats is important. Here, we discuss the topic of cell cultured or tissue engineered fat, growing adipocytes in vitro that could imbue meat alternatives with the complex flavor and aromas of animal meat. We outline potential paths for the large scale production of in vitro cultured fat, including adipogenic precursors during cell proliferation, methods to adipogenically differentiate cells at scale, as well as strategies for converting differentiated adipocytes into 3D cultured fat tissues. We showcase the maturation of knowledge and technology behind cell sourcing and scaled proliferation, while also highlighting that adipogenic differentiation and 3D adipose tissue formation at scale need further research. We also provide some potential solutions for achieving adipose cell differentiation and tissue formation at scale based on contemporary research and the state of the field.

LKB1 Regulates Goat Intramuscular Adipogenesis Through Focal Adhesion Pathway

Intramuscular fat (IMF) deposition is one of the most important factors to affect meat quality in livestock and induce insulin resistance and adverse metabolic phenotypes for humans. However, the key regulators involved in this process remain largely unknown. Although liver kinase B1 (LKB1) was reported to participate in the development of skeletal muscles and classical adipose tissues. Due to the specific autonomic location of intramuscular adipocytes, deposited between or within muscle bundles, the exact roles of LKB1 in IMF deposition need further verified. Here, we cloned the goat LKB1 coding sequence with 1,317 bp, encoding a 438 amino acid peptide. LKB1 was extensively expressed in detected tissues and displayed a trend from decline to rise during intramuscular adipogenesis. Functionally, knockdown of LKB1 by two individual siRNAs enhanced the intramuscular preadipocytes differentiation, accompanied by promoting lipid accumulation and inducing adipogenic transcriptional factors and triglyceride synthesis-related genes expression. Conversely, overexpression of LKB1 restrained these biological signatures. To further explore the mechanisms, the RNA-seq technique was performed to compare the difference between siLKB1 and the control group. There were 1,043 differential expression genes (DEGs) were screened, i.e., 425 upregulated genes and 618 downregulated genes in the siLKB1 group. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis predicted that the DEGs were mainly enriched in the focal adhesion pathway and its classical downstream signal, the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. Specifically, knockdown of LKB1 increased the mRNA level of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and vice versa in LKB1-overexpressed cells, a key component of the activated focal adhesion pathway. Convincingly, blocking this pathway by a specific FAK inhibitor (PF573228) rescued the observed phenotypes in LKB1 knockdown adipocytes. In conclusion, LKB1 inhibited goat intramuscular adipogenesis through the focal adhesion pathway. This work expanded the genetic regulator networks of IMF deposition and provided theoretical support for improving human health and meat quality from the aspect of IMF deposition.