Occupational exoskeletons: A roadmap toward large-scale adoption. Methodology and challenges of bringing exoskeletons to workplaces

Equivalent weight: Application of the assessment method on real task conducted by railway workers wearing a back support exoskeleton

Commonly used risk indexes, such as the NIOSH Lifting Index, do not capture the effect of exoskeletons. This makes it difficult for Health and Safety professionals to rigorously assess the benefit of such devices. The community requires a simple method to assess the effectiveness of back-support exoskeleton's (BSE) in possibly reducing ergonomic risk. The method introduced in this work is termed "Equivalent Weight" (EqW) and it proposes an interpretation of the effect built on the benefit delivered through reduced activation of the erector spinae (ES). This manifests itself as an apparent reduction of the lifted load perceived by the wearer. This work presents a pilot study where a practical application of the EqW method is used to assess the ergonomic risk in manual material handling (MMH) when using a back support exoskeleton (StreamEXO). The results are assessed by combining observational measurements from on-site testing with five different workers and quantitative measures of the muscle activity reduction achieved during laboratory evaluation with ten workers. These results will show that when lifting, lowering, and carrying a 19 kg load the StreamEXO can reduce risk by up to two levels (from "high" to "low") in the target sub-tasks. The Lifting index (LI) was reduced up to 64% when examining specific sub-tasks and the worker's movement conduction.

In-Field Training of a Passive Back Exoskeleton Changes the Biomechanics of Logistic Workers

OCCUPATIONAL APPLICATIONSOccupational exoskeletons receive rising interest in industry as these devices diminish the biomechanical load during manual materials handling. Still, we have limited knowledge when it comes to in-field use. This gap often contributes to failure in the implementation of exoskeleton in industry. In this study, we investigated how a training protocol consisting of in-field use of a passive back exoskeleton affected the biomechanics of logistic workers. More specifically, we focused on how the variation of the muscular and kinematic patterns of the user was altered after exoskeleton training. We found that training had a positive effect on exoskeleton use, as a relative decrease of 6-9% in peak back muscle activity was observed post-training. Additionally, training decreased knee flexion by 6°-16°, indicating a more stoop lifting technique. The findings point at the potential benefits of applying a training approach when implementing a back-supporting exoskeleton in logistics.

A comparative study of biomechanical assessments in laboratory and field settings for manual material handling tasks using extractor tools and exoskeletons

To enhance physical capabilities of workers who regularly perform physically demanding tasks involving heavy lifting and awkward postures, various tools and occupational exoskeletons can be used. Most of the studies aiming to explore the efficiency of these tools and exoskeletons have been performed in confined and controlled laboratory spaces, which do not represent the real-world work environment. This study aimed to compare the outcome of biomechanical assessment of using a back support exoskeleton and assistive tools (Lever and Jake) in the procedure of a high demanding manual material handling task versus the results found by performing the same task in a laboratory. Ten able-bodied participants and ten able-bodied utility workers performed the same manhole removal task in-lab and in-field, respectively, with the aid of an exoskeleton and Lever and Jake tools. Muscle activity and Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA) scores were recorded using surface electromyography and inertial measurement units, respectively and compared between in-lab and in-field trials. The field experiments indicated significant differences (p < 0.05) in normalized muscle activity across most muscles when compared to laboratory data. These results revealed how muscle activity is affected by the controlled lab setting compared to real-world field conditions. However, REBA scores indicate similar ergonomic implications regardless of the utilization of exoskeletons or tools. These findings underscore that real-world field assessments are crucial for evaluating ergonomic risks and effects of occupational exoskeletons and tools to account for environmental factors and workers' skills in ergonomic evaluations of this nature.

Evaluating adaptiveness of an active back exosuit for dynamic lifting and maximum range of motion

Back exosuits deliver mechanical assistance to reduce the risk of back injury, however, minimising restriction is critical for adoption. We developed the adaptive impedance controller to minimise restriction while maintaining assistance by modulating impedance based on the user's movement direction and nonlinear sine curves. The objective of this study was to compare active assistance, delivered by a back exosuit via our adaptive impedance controller, to three levels of assistance from passive elastics. Fifteen participants completed five experimental blocks (4 exosuits and 1 no-suit) consisting of a maximum flexion and a constrained lifting task. While a higher stiffness elastic reduced back extensor muscle activity by 13%, it restricted maximum range of motion (RoM) by 13°. The adaptive impedance approach did not restrict RoM while reducing back extensor muscle activity by 15%, when lifting. This study highlights an adaptive impedance approach might improve usability by circumventing the assistance-restriction trade-off inherent to passive approaches.Practitioner summary: This study demonstrates a soft active exosuit that delivers assistance with an adaptive impedance approach can provide reductions in overall back muscle activity without the impacts of restricted range of motion or perception of restriction and discomfort.

Evaluation of antigravitational support levels provided by a passive upper-limb occupational exoskeleton in repetitive arm movements

Upper-limb occupational exoskeletons to support the workers' upper arms are typically designed to provide antigravitational support. Although typical work activities require workers to perform static and dynamic actions, the majority of the studies in literature investigated the effects of upper-limb occupational exoskeletons in static and quasi-static activities, while only a few works focused on dynamic tasks. This article presents a systematic evaluation of the effects of different levels of antigravitational support (from about 60% to 100% of the arm gravitational load) provided by a passive upper-limb occupational exoskeleton on muscles' activity during repetitive arm movements. The effect of the exoskeleton on muscle activity was evaluated by the comparison of muscle activations with and without the exoskeleton. The average muscle activation was computed considering shoulder full flexion-extension cycles, and sub-movements, namely the arm-lifting (i.e., flexion) and arm-lowering (i.e., extension) movements. Results showed a quasi-linear correlation between antigravitational support and muscle activity reductions, both when considering the full flexion-extension cycle and in the arm-lifting movement (reductions were up to 64 and 61% compared to not wearing the exoskeleton, respectively). When considering the arm-lowering movement, providing antigravitational support close to or higher than 100% of the arm gravitational load led to increased muscle activations of the extensors (up to 127%), suggesting that such an amount of antigravitational support may be not effective for a complete biomechanical load reduction on the shoulder district in dynamic tasks.

Age and gender differences in the perception and use of soft vs. rigid exoskeletons for manual material handling

We investigated age and gender differences in the perception and use of soft (Apex) vs. rigid (Paexo Back) passive back-support exoskeletons (BSE) for repetitive lifting and lowering. A gender-balanced sample of 20 young (18-30 years) and 16 old (45-60 years) individuals were recruited. In the first session, participants' self-reported maximum acceptable load (MAL) was assessed using a psychophysical approach. Changes in muscle activity and kinematics due to BSE use in repetitive lifting/lowering tasks were also assessed. Overall, both BSEs increased MAL (by ∼7%), and reduced trunk extensor muscle activity across all groups (by ∼7-18%), compared to the control condition. Both BSEs promoted more squatting postures, increased quadriceps muscle activity (by ∼34%) and abdominal muscle activity during asymmetric tasks (by 5-20%). Some age and gender differences were significant, particularly for the trunk kinematics when using the Apex. Future work should include more diverse user groups in studying willingness to adopt BSEs and characterising their consequent effects on the body.

Perceived benefits, barriers, perceptions, and readiness to use exoskeletons in the construction industry: Differences by demographic characteristics

Exoskeletons (EXOs) are a promising wearable intervention to reduce work-related musculoskeletal disorder risks among construction workers. However, the adoption of EXOs may differ with demographic characteristics. Survey data (n = 361) were collected from construction industry stakeholders and a summation score method was used to summarize respondent's benefits and barriers to EXO use, along with perceptions and readiness to use. Responses were stratified by race (White vs. non-White), sex (male vs. female), and age (<47 years vs. ≥47 years). Both a higher Benefits score and a higher Perceptions score were significantly and positively associated with a higher Readiness to Use score. There were also significant differences in perceived barriers to EXO use by race and sex. These results demonstrate substantial interest in EXO use but also emphasize the need to ensure proportionate access to the potential benefits of EXO technology.

Design of a wearable shoulder exoskeleton robot with dual-purpose gravity compensation and a compliant misalignment compensation mechanism

This paper presents the design and validation of a wearable shoulder exoskeleton robot intended to serve as a platform for assistive controllers that can mitigate the risk of musculoskeletal disorders seen in workers. The design features a four-bar mechanism that moves the exoskeleton's center of mass from the upper shoulders to the user's torso, dual-purpose gravity compensation mechanism located inside the four-bar's linkages that supports the full gravitational loading from the exoskeleton with partial user's arm weight compensation, and a novel 6 degree-of-freedom (DoF) compliant misalignment compensation mechanism located between the end effector and the user's arm to allow shoulder translation while maintaining control of the arm's direction. Simulations show the four-bar design lowers the center of mass by  cm and the kinematic chain can follow the motion of common upper arm trajectories. Experimental tests show the gravity compensation mechanism compensates gravitational loading within  Nm over the range of shoulder motion and the misalignment compensation mechanism has the desired 6 DoF stiffness characteristics and range of motion to adjust for shoulder center translation. Finally, a workspace admittance controller was implemented and evaluated showing the system is capable of accurately reproducing simulated impedance behavior with transparent low-impedance human operation.

Dynamic and Static Assistive Strategies for a Tailored Occupational Back-Support Exoskeleton: Assessment on Real Tasks Carried Out by Railway Workers

This study on occupational back-support exoskeletons performs a laboratory evaluation of realistic tasks with expert workers from the railway sector. Workers performed both a static task and a dynamic task, each involving manual material handling (MMH) and manipulating loads of 20 kg, in three conditions: without an exoskeleton, with a commercially available passive exoskeleton (Laevo v2.56), and with the StreamEXO, an active back-support exoskeleton developed by our institute. Two control strategies were defined, one for dynamic tasks and one for static tasks, with the latter determining the upper body's gravity compensation through the Model-based Gravity Compensation (MB-Grav) approach. This work presents a comparative assessment of the performance of active back support exoskeletons versus passive exoskeletons when trialled in relevant and realistic tasks. After a lab characterization of the MB-Grav strategy, the experimental assessment compared two back-support exoskeletons, one active and one passive. The results showed that while both devices were able to reduce back muscle activation, the benefits of the active device were triple those of the passive system regarding back muscle activation (26% and 33% against 9% and 11%, respectively), while the passive exoskeleton hindered trunk mobility more than the active mechanism.

Insidious risks of wearable robots to worker safety and health: A scoping review

INTRODUCTION

The construction industry is tormented by a high rate of work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) and flat or declining productivity rates. To improve construction workers' safety, health, and productivity, construction researchers and practitioners are investigating the safe implementation of exoskeletons. However, concern exists that these human-robot interactions (HRI) could amplify the effects of existing health and safety risks and lead to new health and safety risks. Only a few comprehensive studies have identified safety and health hazards inherent in using exoskeletons within construction trades and potential strategies for mitigating these threats. This study attempts to bridge this gap.

METHOD

A literature search was conducted using electronic databases. The authors relied on a 5-step scoping review process to examine academic publications, industry reports, and fact sheets to generate helpful information for this study.

RESULTS

The review revealed 36 health and safety hazards associated with using wearable robots in high-risk construction trades. Twenty-two organizational and field-facing strategies were introduced as potential controls to mitigate the identified hazards.

CONCLUSIONS

The study provided a knowledge-based foundation for HRI safety risk assessment and guidance to optimize pre-task planning. This foundation could lead to significant advances in construction trade safety and the successful execution of tasks by robotic technology.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Results from the present study can guide construction practitioners and safety professionals involved in technology integration and safety risk assessment on safe ways to implement wearable robots. Moreover, the present study provides critical insight that could inform the design and implementation of job hazard analysis and shape continuous education programs and safety training. This study prompts policymakers, standard developers, and exoskeleton manufacturers to work closely to ensure a safe future for exoskeletons in the construction industry.

Evaluating cognitive and physical work performance: A comparative study of an active and passive industrial back-support exoskeleton

Occupational back-support exoskeletons, categorized as active or passive, hold promise for mitigating work-related musculoskeletal disorders. However, their impact on combined physical and cognitive aspects of industrial work performance remains inadequately understood, especially regarding potential differences between exoskeleton categories. A randomized, counterbalanced cross-over study was conducted, comparing the active CrayX, passive Paexo Back, and a no exoskeleton condition. A 15-min dual task was used to simulate both cognitive and physical aspects of industrial work performance. Cognitive workload parameters included reaction time, accuracy, and subjective measures. Physical workload included movement duration, segmented in three phases: (1) walking to and grabbing the box, (2) picking up, carrying, and putting down the box, and (3) returning to the starting point. Comfort of both devices was also surveyed. The Paexo significantly increased movement duration in the first segment compared to NoExo (Paexo = 1.55 ± 0.19 s; NoExo = 1.32 ± 0.17 s; p < .01). Moreover, both the Paexo and CrayX increased movement duration for the third segment compared to NoExo (CrayX = 1.70 ± 0.27 s; Paexo = 1.74 ± 0.27 s, NoExo = 1.54 ± 0.23 s; p < .01). No significant impact on cognitive outcomes was observed. Movement Time 2 was not significantly affected by both exoskeletons. Results of the first movement segment suggest the Paexo may hinder trunk bending, favoring the active device for dynamic movements. Both devices may have contributed to a higher workload as the movement duration in the third segment increased compared to NoExo.

Understanding contributing factors to exoskeleton use-intention in construction: a decision tree approach using results from an online survey

Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) are a major health concern in the construction industry. Occupational exoskeletons (EXOs) are a promising ergonomic intervention to help reduce WMSD risk. Their adoption, however, has been low in construction. To understand the contributing factors to EXO use-intention and assist in future decision-making, we built decision trees to predict responses to each of three EXO use-intention questions (Try, Voluntary Use, and Behavioural Intention), using online survey responses. Variable selection and hyperparameter tuning were used respectively to reduce the number of potential predictors and improve prediction performance. The importance of variables in each final tree was calculated to understand which variables had a greater influence. The final trees had moderate prediction performance. The root node of each tree included EXOs becoming standard equipment, fatigue reduction, or performance increase. Important variables were found to be quite specific to different decision trees. Practical implications of the findings are discussed.Practitioner summary: This study used decision trees to identify key factors influencing the use-intention of occupational exoskeletons (EXOs) in construction, using online survey data. Key factors identified included EXOs becoming standard equipment, fatigue reduction, and performance improvement. Final trees provide intuitive visual representations of the decision-making process for workers to use EXOs.

Human-in-the-Loop Optimization of Wearable Robotic Devices to Improve Human-Robot Interaction: A Systematic Review

This article presents a systematic review on wearable robotic devices that use human-in-the-loop optimization (HILO) strategies to improve human-robot interaction. A total of 46 HILO studies were identified and divided into upper and lower limb robotic devices. The main aspects from HILO were identified, reviewed, and classified in four areas: 1) human-machine systems; 2) optimization methods; 3) control strategies; and 4) experimental protocols. A variety of objective functions (physiological, biomechanical, and subjective), optimization strategies, and optimized control parameters configurations used in different control strategies are presented and analyzed. An overview of experimental protocols is provided, including metrics, tasks, and conditions tested. Moreover, the relevance given to training or adaptation periods was explored. We outline an HILO framework that includes current wearable robots, optimization strategies, objective functions, control strategies, and experimental protocols. We conclude by highlighting current research gaps and defining future directions to improve the development of advanced HILO strategies in upper and lower limb wearable robots.

Validation of a modified visual analogue scale to measure user-perceived comfort of a lower-limb exoskeleton

User perceived exoskeleton comfort is likely important for device acceptance, but there is currently no validated instrument to measure it. The Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) is an existing tool to measure subjective human feedback by asking the user to mark a point on a line with each end of the line representing an opposing anchor statement. It can be modified to show the previous response, allowing the subject to directly indicate if the current condition is better or worse than the previous one. The goal of this study was to determine how well the modified VAS could measure user-perceived comfort as the exoskeleton control parameters were varied. To validate the survey, 14 healthy subjects walked in a pair of ankle exoskeletons with approximately ten distinct sets of control parameters tested in a prescribed order. Each set of control parameters was tested twice. After each trial, user-perceived comfort was measured using a two-question VAS survey. The repeatability coefficient was approximately 40 mm, similar to the total range of responses. The results were also inconsistent, with relative rankings between consecutive pairs of conditions matching for approximately 50% of comparisons. Thus, as tested, the VAS was not repeatable or consistent. It is possible that subject adaptation within the trial and over the course of the experiment may have impacted the results. Additional work is needed to develop a repeatable method to measure comfort and to determine how perceived comfort varies as subjects' gain exoskeleton experience.

A framework for evaluation and adoption of industrial exoskeletons

Work-related Musculoskeletal Disorders (WMSDs) account for a significant portion of worker illnesses and injuries, resulting in high costs and productivity losses to employers globally. In recent years, there has been an increased interest in the use of exoskeleton technology to reduce rates of WMSDs in industrial worksites. Despite the potential of exoskeletons to mitigate the risks of WMSDs, the required steps to properly assess and implement the technology for industrial applications are not clear. This paper proposes a framework that can help organizations successfully evaluate and adopt industrial exoskeletons. Through a focus group of industry professionals, researchers, and exoskeleton experts, and by building on existing literature, an overarching adoption framework is developed. The identified stages and tasks within the framework enable an organization to evaluate and adopt exoskeletons through a systematic approach and to identify the existing gaps in their technology adoption process. The findings also highlight the areas where further studies are needed to promote the adoption of industrial exoskeletons, including large-scale field studies and long-term monitoring.

Biomechanical changes, acceptance, and usability of a passive shoulder exoskeleton in manual material handling. A field study

Occupational exoskeletons contribute to diminish the biomechanical load during manual work. However, familiarization to the use of exoskeletons is rarely considered, which may lead to failure of acceptance and implementation. In this study, ten logistic workers underwent a 5-week progressive familiarization to a passive shoulder exoskeleton, while ten workers acted as controls. Tests pre and post the familiarization applied measurements of muscle activity and kinematics of back, neck, and shoulder, perceived effort, and usability-ratings of the exoskeleton. Exoskeleton use resulted in lower muscle activity of anterior deltoid (13-39%) and upper trapezius (16-60%) and reduced perceived effort. Additionally, it induced an offset in shoulder flexion and abduction during resting position (8-10°). No conclusions on familiarization could be drawn due to low adherence to the protocol. However, the emotions of the workers towards using the exoskeleton decreased making it questionable whether the shoulder exoskeleton is suitable for use in the logistics sector.

Addressing Exoskeleton Implementation Challenges: Case Studies of Non-Acceptance in Agriculture

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study was to detect success and failure factors for the implementation of passive exoskeletons in agriculture. Exoskeletons have been shown to reduce musculoskeletal loads during lab-based manual tasks, but long-term implementation experiences in agriculture are lacking.

METHODS

We analyzed four intervention studies in agriculture focusing on methodological and contextual reasons why the trials were successful or unsuccessful. The study context, attempted intervention, and data collection of each field trial is compared. In the absence of long-term studies investigating the implementation and effectiveness of exoskeletons in agriculture, a set of multi-week pilot trials were initiated among German market vegetable farms and French vineyards from 2019 to 2022. Participant ratings, farm characteristics (e.g. employment duration and payment scheme) and intervention implementation characteristics (e.g. participation in implementation or language barriers) were analyzed using a mixed-methods approach to identify success and failure factors.

RESULTS

The comparison of the studies showed that despite the organizational issues, there were several practical issues that limit the success of exoskeleton use in agriculture. We observed that participant rejection of the intervention is a major barrier to successfully conducting long-term field trials in agriculture. Factors like pain, discomfort, heat stress, or a lack of perceived benefits have been identified as failure factors but also the implementation process itself.

CONCLUSION

In addition to careful targeting of trial sites and inclusion of participatory elements in the implementation plan, successful implementation of exoskeletons in agriculture requires fundamental human factors development of the exoskeletons themselves. This will require better matching the physical needs of the workers, the production needs of the tasks, and compatibility with the environment.

Field study on the use and acceptance of an arm support exoskeleton in plastering

Exoskeleton use in day-to-day plastering may face several challenges. Not all plasterer's tasks comprise of movements that will be supported by the exoskeleton and might even be hindered. Furthermore, use in practice might be jeopardised by time pressure, colleagues being negative, discomfort, or any other hindrance of the exoskeleton. We set up a field study, in which 39 plasterers were equipped with an exoskeleton for six weeks, to study exoskeleton usage. Moreover, we studied workload and fatigue, behaviour, productivity and quality, advantages and disadvantages, and acceptance. Exoskeleton use was dependent on the task performed but did not change over the course of the six weeks. For three tasks, higher exoskeleton use was associated with lower perceived loads, although differences were small. Advantages outweighed disadvantages for the majority of our population. This study shows that a majority of plasterers will wear the exoskeleton and is enthusiastic about the load reducing effect. Practitioner summary: For exoskeletons to make an impact on the health and well-being of workers, they need to be applicable in real work situations and accepted by the users. This study shows that 65% of the plasterers in this study want to use the exoskeleton in the future, for specific tasks.

A Novel Passive Back-Support Exoskeleton With a Spring-Cable-Differential for Lifting Assistance

Lower back injuries are the most common work-related musculoskeletal disorders. As a wearable device, a back-support exoskeleton (BSE) can reduce the risk of lower back injuries and passive BSEs can achieve a low device weight. However, with current passive BSEs, there is a problem that the user must push against the device when lifting the leg to walk, which is perceived as particularly uncomfortable due to the resistance. To solve this problem, we propose a novel passive BSE that can automatically distinguish between lifting and walking. A unique spring-cable-differential acts as a torque generator to drive both hip joints, providing adequate assistive torque during lifting and low resistance during walking. The optimization of parameters can accommodate the asymmetry of human gait. In addition, the assistive torque on both sides of the user is always the same to ensure the balance of forces. By using a cable to transmit the spring force, we placed the torque generator on the person's back to reduce the weight on the legs. To test the effectiveness of the device, we performed a series of simulated lifting tasks and walking trials. When lifting a load of 10 kg in a squatting and stooping position, the device was able to reduce the activation of the erector spinae muscles by up to 41%. No significant change in the activation of the leg and back muscles was detected during walking.

The Dynamic Adoption Journey: A Typology for Users and Non-Users of Occupational Exoskeletons

Various barriers prevent the adoption of occupational exoskeletons. It is therefore important to understand why some people are willing to use occupational exoskeletons, while others are not. To identify why people use or do not use exoskeletons, we created a typology describing different types of users and non-users. These types were created based on existing literature on internet adoption and social robots. Next, literature and empirical data were used to identify reasons why some people use exoskeletons and others do not use them (yet). The typology includes users with pain and users without work-related musculoskeletal disorders, but also non-users: resisters, rejecters, discontinuers, excluded or expelled non-users. It can be used by companies interested in implementing exoskeletons to identify possible early adopters. For exoskeleton designers, it can be used as a tool to identify non-users and focus on design strategies to enable non-users to become users (such as making exoskeletons that would fit people with a wide range of body shapes). Future research can use these types to identify users and non-users in field trials or pilot projects.

Evaluation of U.S. Army Soldiers wearing a back exosuit during a field training exercise

Back overuse injuries are a significant problem in the U.S. Army, responsible for nearly a quarter of musculoskeletal injuries. Back exosuits are wearable devices that relieve musculoskeletal strain, make lifting easier, and could potentially reduce Soldier overuse injuries. But published studies have not evaluated exosuits during realistic field operations to assess acceptability to Soldiers. We tested a back exosuit on field artillery Soldiers during a field training exercise. Afterward, Soldiers completed a survey to quantify their satisfaction, intent to use, and performance impact of the exosuit. Feedback was overwhelmingly positive: Approximately 90% of Soldiers reported that exosuits increased their ability to perform their duties, and 100% said that if the exosuit were further developed and made available to them, they would be likely to wear it. These numerical survey results indicated that exosuits can provide a practical and acceptable way to assist lifting and augment physical performance during realistic Army operations without interfering with other duties.

Evaluation Methods and Measurement Challenges for Industrial Exoskeletons

In recent years, exoskeleton test methods for industrial exoskeletons have evolved to include simulated laboratory and field environments. Physiological, kinematic, and kinetic metrics, as well as subjective surveys, are used to evaluate exoskeleton usability. In particular, exoskeleton fit and usability can also impact the safety of exoskeletons and their effectiveness at reducing musculoskeletal injuries. This paper surveys the state of the art in measurement methods applied to exoskeleton evaluation. A notional classification of the metrics based on exoskeleton fit, task efficiency, comfort, mobility, and balance is proposed. In addition, the paper describes the test and measurement methods used in supporting the development of exoskeleton and exosuit evaluation methods to assess their fit, usability, and effectiveness in industrial tasks such as peg in hole, load align, and applied force. Finally, the paper includes a discussion of how the metrics can be applied towards a systematic evaluation of industrial exoskeletons, current measurement challenges, and future research directions.

Side-effects and adverse events of a shoulder- and back-support exoskeleton in workers: A systematic review

INTRODUCTION

While the biomechanical effects of exoskeletons are well studied, research about potential side-effects and adverse events are limited. The aim of this systematic review was to provide an overview of the side-effects and adverse events on shoulder- and back-support exoskeletons during work tasks.

METHODS

Four in-field studies and 32 laboratory studies were included in this review, reporting on n = 18 shoulder exoskeletons, n = 9 back exoskeletons, n = 1 full body with a supernumerary arm, and n = 1 combination of shoulder and back exoskeleton.

RESULTS

The most frequent side-effect reported is discomfort (n = 30), followed by a limited usability of the exoskeleton (n = 16). Other identified side-effects and adverse events were changes in muscle activity, mobility, task performance, balance and posture, neurovascular supply, gait parameters and precision. An incorrect fit of the exoskeleton and the decreased degrees of freedom are most often reported as causes of these side-effects. Two studies did not find any side-effects. This review also showed that there are differences in the occurrence of side-effects in gender, age, and physical fitness. Most studies (89%) were conducted in a laboratory setting. Most studies (97%) measured short-term effects only. Psychological and social side-effects or adverse events were not reported. Side-effects and adverse events for active exoskeletons were understudied (n = 4).

CONCLUSION

It was concluded that the evidence for side-effects and adverse events is limited. If available, it mainly consists of reports of mild discomfort and limited usability. Generalisation is limited because studies were conducted in lab settings and measured short term only, and most participants were young male workers.

Effects of back-support exoskeletons with different functional mechanisms on trunk muscle activity and kinematics

Musculoskeletal disorders constitute the leading work-related health issue. Mechanical loading of the lower back contributes as a major risk factor and is prevalent in many tasks performed in logistics. The study aimed to compare acute effects of exoskeletons with different functional mechanisms in a logistic task. Twelve young, healthy individuals participated in the study. Five exoskeletons with different functional mechanisms were tested in a logistic task, consisting of lifting, carrying, and lowering a 13 kg box. By using electromyography (EMG), mean muscle activities of four muscles in the trunk were analyzed. Additionally, kinematics by task completion time and range of motion (RoM) of the major joints and segments were investigated. A main effect was found for Musculus erector spinae, Musculus multifidus, and Musculus latissimus dorsi showing differences in muscle activity reductions between exoskeletons. Reduction in ES mean activity compared to baseline was primarily during lifting from ground level. The exoskeletons SoftExo Lift and Cray X also showed ES mean reduction during lowering the box. Prolonged task duration during the lifting phase was found for the exoskeletons BionicBack, SoftExo Lift, and Japet.W. Japet.W showed a trend in reducing hip RoM during that phase. SoftExo Lift caused a reduction in trunk flexion during the lifting phase. A stronger trunk inclination was only found during lifting from the table for the SoftExo Lift and the Cray X. In conclusion, muscle activity reductions by exoskeleton use should not be assessed without taking their designed force paths into account to correctly interpret the effects for long-term injury prevention.

Biomechanical Assessments of the Upper Limb for Determining Fatigue, Strain and Effort from the Laboratory to the Industrial Working Place: A Systematic Review

Recent human-centered developments in the industrial field (Industry 5.0) lead companies and stakeholders to ensure the wellbeing of their workers with assessments of upper limb performance in the workplace, with the aim of reducing work-related diseases and improving awareness of the physical status of workers, by assessing motor performance, fatigue, strain and effort. Such approaches are usually developed in laboratories and only at times they are translated to on-field applications; few studies summarized common practices for the assessments. Therefore, our aim is to review the current state-of-the-art approaches used for the assessment of fatigue, strain and effort in working scenarios and to analyze in detail the differences between studies that take place in the laboratory and in the workplace, in order to give insights on future trends and directions. A systematic review of the studies aimed at evaluating the motor performance, fatigue, strain and effort of the upper limb targeting working scenarios is presented. A total of 1375 articles were found in scientific databases and 288 were analyzed. About half of the scientific articles are focused on laboratory pilot studies investigating effort and fatigue in laboratories, while the other half are set in working places. Our results showed that assessing upper limb biomechanics is quite common in the field, but it is mostly performed with instrumental assessments in laboratory studies, while questionnaires and scales are preferred in working places. Future directions may be oriented towards multi-domain approaches able to exploit the potential of combined analyses, exploitation of instrumental approaches in workplace, targeting a wider range of people and implementing more structured trials to translate pilot studies to real practice.

A novel passive shoulder exoskeleton for assisting overhead work

Shoulder exoskeletons (SEs) can assist the shoulder joint of workers during overhead work and are usually passive for good portability. However, current passive SEs face the challenge that their torque generators are often attached to the human arm, which adds a significant amount of weight to the user's arms, resulting in additional energy consumption of the user. In this paper, we present a novel passive SE whose torque generator is attached to the user's back and assists the shoulder joint through Bowden cables. Our approach greatly reduces the weight on the user's arms and can accommodate complex shoulder joint movements with simple and lightweight mechanical structure based on Bowden cables. In addition, to match the nonlinear torque requirements of the shoulder joint, a unique spring-cam mechanism is proposed as the torque generator. To verify the effectiveness of the device, we conducted a usability test based on muscle activations of 10 healthy subjects. When assisting overhead work, the SE significantly reduced the mean and maximum electromyography signals of the shoulder-related muscles by up to 25%. The proposed SE contributes to further research on passive SE design to improve usability, especially in terms of reducing weight on human arms.

Design and validation of a novel online platform to support the usability evaluation of wearable robotic devices

Wearable robotic devices (WRD) are still struggling to fulfill their vast potential. Inadequate daily life usability is one of the main hindrances to increased technology acceptance. Improving usability evaluation practices during the development of WRD could help address these limitations. In this work, we present the design and validation of a novel online platform aiming to fill this gap, the Interactive Usability Toolbox (IUT). This platform consists of a public website that offers an interactive, context-specific search within a database of 154 user research methods and educational information about usability. In a dedicated study, the effect of this platform to support usability evaluation was investigated. Twelve WRD experts were asked to complete the task of defining usability evaluation protocols for two specific use cases. The platform was provided to support one of the use cases. The quality and composition of the proposed protocols were assessed by (i) two blinded reviewers, (ii) the participants themselves, and (iii) the study coordinators. We showed that using the IUT significantly affected the proposed evaluation focus, shifting protocols from mainly effectiveness-oriented to more user-focused studies. The protocol quality, as rated by the external reviewers, remained equivalent to those designed with conventional strategies. A mixed-method usability evaluation of the platform yielded an overall positive image, with detailed suggestions for further improvements. The IUT is expected to positively affect the evaluation and development of WRD through its educational value, the context-specific recommendations supporting ongoing benchmarking endeavors, and highlighting the value of qualitative user research.

A method to quantify the reduction of back and hip muscle fatigue of lift-support exoskeletons

Cumulative back muscle fatigue plays a role in the occurrence of low-back injuries in occupations that require repetitive lifting of heavy loads and working in forward leaning postures. Lift-support exoskeletons have the potential to reduce back and hip muscle activity, thereby delaying the onset of fatigue in these muscles. Therefore, exoskeletons are being considered a potentially important tool to further reduce workload-related injuries. However, today no standards have been established on how to benchmark the support level of lift-support exoskeletons. This work proposes an experimental protocol to quantify the support level of a lift-support exoskeletons on instant changes in muscle activity and fatigue development while maintaining a static forward leaning posture. It then applies the protocol to experimentally assess the effect of the support provided by a commercially available lift-support exoskeleton, the LiftSuit 2.0 (Auxivo AG, Schwerzenbach, Switzerland), on the user. In a sample of 14 participants, the amplitude of the muscle activity of the back muscles and hip muscles () was significantly reduced. Wearing the exoskeleton significantly reduced the amount of fatigue developed during the task (). Changes in muscle fatigue can be objectively recorded and correlated with relevant changes for exoskeleton users: the time a task can be performed and perceived low-back fatigue. Thus, including such measures of fatigue in standardized benchmarking procedures will help quantify the benefits of exoskeletons for occupational use.

Passive shoulder exoskeleton support partially mitigates fatigue-induced effects in overhead work

BACKGROUND

Despite the potential of occupational passive shoulder exoskeletons (PSEs) to relieve overhead work, limited insights in overhead work precision performance impedes large-scale adoption in industry.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of PSE support on the reduction in task performance caused by physical fatigue.

METHODS

This experiment consisted of a randomized, counterbalanced cross-over design comparing Exo4Work PSE support and no support, in a physically fatigued state and a control condition. Precision performance was determined using execution speed and drilling errors. Muscle activity and shoulder joint kinematics were recorded.

RESULTS

Fatigue altered task performance, shoulder joint kinematics, muscle activity and subjective experience during overhead work. The PSE support mitigated the fatigue-induced changes in shoulder kinematics. Additionally, a part of the fatigue-induced co-activation of shoulder stabilizing muscles was avoided when working with the PSE. The PSE support also reduced the activity of the anterior and medial deltoid.

CONCLUSION

Physical fatigue provokes compensatory movements and increased co-contraction of muscles when executing overhead work. These fatigue-induced alterations are generally believed to increase the overall musculoskeletal load. The support provided by the PSE reduced muscle activity of muscles working to elevate the arm, but also partially mitigated those fatigue-induced effects.

SIGNIFICANCE

This study shows that the effect of PSE support on precision performance is limited, and suggested that, apart from the known effects of PSE support during overhead work, wearing the exoskeleton in a physically fatigued state may provide additional advantages.

Engineering design strategies for force augmentation exoskeletons: A general review

In the industrial and military sector, work activities are required transporting or supporting heavy loads manually, affecting this the human spinal column due to the weight of the loads or the repetition of this labor. In this regard, the use of force-enhancing exoskeletons is a potential solution to this issue. Therefore, this article summarizes the state of the art in relevant contributions to structural design, control systems, actuators, and performance metrics to evaluate the proper functioning of exoskeletons used for load support and transfer. This is essential to address current and new open problems in these applications, and this includes reducing the metabolic cost and enhancing the loading force in exoskeletons, in which challenges such as structural design and kinetic interactions between the human and the robot are presented. The systematic review of the strategies found in the literature helps addressing these challenges in an orderly way. The proposal of some alternative solutions could help to solving some of the challenges mentioned above, as well as further research to improve the design of these devices is necessary.

Identifying Facilitators, Barriers, and Potential Solutions of Adopting Exoskeletons and Exosuits in Construction Workplaces

Exoskeletons and exosuits (collectively termed EXOs) have the potential to reduce the risk of work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) by protecting workers from exertion and muscle fatigue due to physically demanding, repetitive, and prolonged work in construction workplaces. However, the use of EXOs in construction is in its infancy, and much of the knowledge required to drive the acceptance, adoption, and application of this technology is still lacking. The objective of this research is to identify the facilitators, barriers, and corresponding solutions to foster the adoption of EXOs in construction workplaces through a sequential, multistage Delphi approach. Eighteen experts from academia, industry, and government gathered in a workshop to provide insights and exchange opinions regarding facilitators, barriers, and potential solutions from a holistic perspective with respect to business, technology, organization, policy/regulation, ergonomics/safety, and end users (construction-trade professionals). Consensus was reached regarding all these perspectives, including top barriers and potential solution strategies. The outcomes of this study will help the community gain a comprehensive understanding of the potential for EXO use in the construction industry, which may enable the development of a viable roadmap for the evolution of EXO technology and the future of EXO-enabled workers and work in construction workplaces.

Model-Based Biomechanical Exoskeleton Concept Optimization for a Representative Lifting Task in Logistics

Occupational exoskeletons are a promising solution to prevent work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs). However, there are no established systems that support heavy lifting to shoulder height. Thus, this work presents a model-based analysis of heavy lifting activities and subsequent exoskeleton concept optimization. Six motion sequences were captured in the laboratory for three subjects and analyzed in multibody simulations with respect to muscle activities (MAs) and joint forces (JFs). The most strenuous sequence was selected and utilized in further simulations of a human model connected to 32 exoskeleton concept variants. Six simulated concepts were compared concerning occurring JFs and MAs as well as interaction loads in the exoskeleton arm interfaces. Symmetric uplifting of a 21 kg box from hip to shoulder height was identified as the most strenuous motion sequence with highly loaded arms, shoulders, and back. Six concept variants reduced mean JFs (spine: >70%, glenohumeral joint: >69%) and MAs (back: >63%, shoulder: >59% in five concepts). Parasitic loads in the arm bracing varied strongly among variants. An exoskeleton design was identified that effectively supports heavy lifting, combining high musculoskeletal relief and low parasitic loads. The applied workflow can help developers in the optimization of exoskeletons.

Industrial exoskeletons from bench to field: Human-machine interface and user experience in occupational settings and tasks

Objective

Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMSDs) are considered nowadays the most serious issue in the Occupational Health and Safety field and industrial exoskeletons appear to be a new approach to addressing this medical burden. A systematic review has been carried out to analyze the real-life data of the application of exoskeletons in work settings considering the subjective responses of workers.

Methods

The review was registered on PROSPERO. The literature search and its report have been performed following the PRISMA guidelines. A comprehensive literature search was performed in PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, and Scopus.

Results

Twenty-four original studies were included in the literature review; 42% of the papers retrieved included automobilist industry workers, 17% of the studies evaluated the use of exoskeletons in logistic facilities, and 17% of articles involved healthcare. The remaining six papers recruited farmers, plasterers, wasting collectors, construction workers, and other workmen. All the papers selected tested the use of passive exoskeletons, supporting upper arms or back. Usability, perceived comfort, perceived exertion and fatigue, acceptability and intention to use, occupational safety and health, and job performance and productivity were the main topic analyzed.

Conclusion

Exoskeletons are not a fix-all technology, neither for workers nor for job tasks; they tend to show more of their potential in static activities, while in dynamic tasks, they can obstacle regular job performance. Comfort and easiness of use are the key factors influencing the user's experience. More research is needed to determine the most effective and safe ways to implement exoskeleton use in occupational settings.

Systematic review registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=275728, identifier CRD42021275728.

Neuro-cognitive assessment of intentional control methods for a soft elbow exosuit using error-related potentials

Soft exosuits offer promise to support users in everyday workload tasks by providing assistance. However, acceptance of such systems remains low due to the difficulty of control compared with rigid mechatronic systems. Recently, there has been progress in developing control schemes for soft exosuits that move in line with user intentions. While initial results have demonstrated sufficient device performance, the assessment of user experience via the cognitive response has yet to be evaluated. To address this, we propose a soft pneumatic elbow exosuit designed based on our previous work to provide assistance in line with user expectations utilizing two existing state-of-the-art control methods consisting of a gravity compensation and myoprocessor based on muscle activation. A user experience study was conducted to assess whether the device moves naturally with user expectations and the potential for device acceptance by determining when the exosuit violated user expectations through the neuro-cognitive and motor response. Brain activity from electroencephalography (EEG) data revealed that subjects elicited error-related potentials (ErrPs) in response to unexpected exosuit actions, which were decodable across both control schemes with an average accuracy of 76.63 ± 1.73% across subjects. Additionally, unexpected exosuit actions were further decoded via the motor response from electromyography (EMG) and kinematic data with a grand average accuracy of 68.73 ± 6.83% and 77.52 ± 3.79% respectively. This work demonstrates the validation of existing state-of-the-art control schemes for soft wearable exosuits through the proposed soft pneumatic elbow exosuit. We demonstrate the feasibility of assessing device performance with respect to the cognitive response through decoding when the device violates user expectations in order to help understand and promote device acceptance.

Assessment methodology for human-exoskeleton interactions: Kinetic analysis based on muscle activation

During the development and assessment of an exoskeleton, many different analyzes need to be performed. The most frequently used evaluate the changes in muscle activations, metabolic consumption, kinematics, and kinetics. Since human-exoskeleton interactions are based on the exchange of forces and torques, the latter of these, kinetic analyzes, are essential and provide indispensable evaluation indices. Kinetic analyzes, however, require access to, and use of, complex experimental apparatus, involving many instruments and implicating lengthy data analysis processes. The proposed methodology in this paper, which is based on data collected via EMG and motion capture systems, considerably reduces this burden by calculating kinetic parameters, such as torque and power, without needing ground reaction force measurements. This considerably reduces the number of instruments used, allows the calculation of kinetic parameters even when the use of force sensors is problematic, does not need any dedicated software, and will be shown to have high statistical validity. The method, in fact, combines data found in the literature with those collected in the laboratory, allowing the analysis to be carried out over a much greater number of cycles than would normally be collected with force plates, thus enabling easy access to statistical analysis. This new approach evaluates the kinetic effects of the exoskeleton with respect to changes induced in the user's kinematics and muscular activation patterns and provides indices that quantify the assistance in terms of torque (AMI) and power (API). Following the User-Center Design approach, which requires driving the development process as feedback from the assessment process, this aspect is critical. Therefore, by enabling easy access to the assessment process, the development of exoskeletons could be positively affected.

The effect of a movable headrest in shoulder assist device for overhead work

Recently, many kinds of shoulder-support exoskeletons have been developed and some of them are commercially available. However, to the best of our knowledge, shoulder-support exoskeletons that have neck-support mechanism have not been found. During the overhead work, physical strain is added to not only upper limb and shoulder but also neck of workers since the workers work keeping their face raised. Therefore, in this study, to reduce the physical strain on the neck during the overhead work, a movable headrest that can be attached to the shoulder assist device was developed, which has reclining and slide functions of a head. The main purpose of this article was to evaluate usefulness of the proposed movable headrest. To this end, measurements of electromyogram were carried out under simulating an overhead work activity, and the reduction effect for physical strain of the neck was compared among three types of headrests: (a) slide-type headrest which can slide the head backward and forward, (b) reclining-type headrest which can recline the head, and (c) reclining and slide-type headrest which can recline and slide the head. In addition, usefulness of the shoulder assist device with the proposed headrest was evaluated for a realistic overhead work activity through measurements of muscular stiffness of neck and shoulder. The experimental results showed that the existence of the headrest in the shoulder assist device is effective to reduce the physical strain to the workers, and that (c) reclining and slide-type headrest is the most effective among these three types of headrests.

Electromyography-based fatigue assessment of an upper body exoskeleton during automotive assembly

The purpose of this study was to assess an upper body exoskeleton during automotive assembly processes that involve elevated arm postures. Sixteen team members at Toyota Motor Manufacturing Canada were fitted with a Levitate Airframe, and each team member performed between one and three processes with and without the exoskeleton. A total of 16 assembly processes were studied. Electromyography (EMG) data were collected on the anterior deltoid, biceps brachii, upper trapezius, and erector spinae. Team members also completed a usability survey. The exoskeleton significantly reduced anterior deltoid mean active EMG amplitude (p = .01, Δ = -3.2 %MVC, d = 0.56 medium effect) and fatigue risk value (p < .01, Δ = -5.1 %MVC, d = 0.62 medium effect) across the assembly processes, with no significant changes for the other muscles tested. A subset of nine assembly processes with a greater amount of time spent in arm elevations at or above 90° (30 vs. 24%) and at or above 135° (18 vs. 9%) appeared to benefit more from exoskeleton usage. For these processes, the exoskeleton significantly reduced anterior deltoid mean active EMG amplitude (p < .01, Δ = -5.1 %MVC, d = 0.95 large effect) and fatigue risk value (p < .01, Δ = -7.4 %MVC, d = 0.96 large effect). Team members responded positively about comfort and fatigue benefits, although there were concerns about the exoskeleton hindering certain job duties. The results support quantitative testing to match exoskeleton usage with specific job tasks and surveying team members for perceived benefits/drawbacks.

Exoworkathlon: A prospective study approach for the evaluation of industrial exoskeletons

Industrial exoskeletons have recently gained importance as ergonomic interventions for physically demanding work activities. The growing demand for exoskeletons is leading to a need for new knowledge on the effectiveness of these systems. The Exoworkathlon, as a prospective study approach, aims to assess exoskeletons in realistic use cases and to evaluate them neutrally in their entirety. For this purpose, a first set of four realistic Parcours was developed with experts from relevant industries, the German Social Accident Insurance, and the Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. In addition, a set of ratings was defined to assess subjective user feedback, work quality, and objective physiological parameters. Exoworkathlon aims to bring together developers, researchers, and end-users, strengthen collaborative exchanges, and promote a platform for the prospective holistic data collection for exoskeleton evaluation. In this article, the focus is on the background and methodology of Exoworkathlon.

A Systematic Review on Evaluation Strategies for Field Assessment of Upper-Body Industrial Exoskeletons: Current Practices and Future Trends

With rising manual work demands, physical assistance at the workplace is crucial, wherein the use of industrial exoskeletons (i-EXOs) could be advantageous. However, outcomes of numerous laboratory studies may not be directly translated to field environments. To explore this discrepancy, we conducted a systematic review including 31 studies to identify and compare the approaches, techniques, and outcomes within field assessments of shoulder and back support i-EXOs. Findings revealed that the subjective approaches [i.e., discomfort (23), usability (22), acceptance/perspectives (21), risk of injury (8), posture (3), perceived workload (2)] were reported more common (27) compared to objective (15) approaches [muscular demand (14), kinematics (8), metabolic costs (5)]. High variability was also observed in the experimental methodologies, including control over activity, task physics/duration, sample size, and reported metrics/measures. In the current study, the detailed approaches, their subject-related factors, and observed trends have been discussed. In sum, a new guideline, including tools/technologies has been proposed that could be utilized for field evaluation of i-EXOs. Lastly, we discussed some of the common technical challenges experimenters face in evaluating i-EXOs in field environments. Efforts presented in this study seek to improve the generalizability in testing and implementing i-EXOs.

Biomechanical Analysis of Stoop and Free-Style Squat Lifting and Lowering with a Generic Back-Support Exoskeleton Model

Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) induced by industrial manual handling tasks are a major issue for workers and companies. As flexible ergonomic solutions, occupational exoskeletons can decrease critically high body stress in situations of awkward postures and motions. Biomechanical models with detailed anthropometrics and motions help us to acquire a comprehension of person- and application-specifics by considering the intended and unintended effects, which is crucial for effective implementation. In the present model-based analysis, a generic back-support exoskeleton model was introduced and applied to the motion data of one male subject performing symmetric and asymmetric dynamic manual handling tasks. Different support modes were implemented with this model, including support profiles typical of passive and active systems and an unconstrained optimal support mode used for reference to compare and quantify their biomechanical effects. The conducted simulations indicate that there is a high potential to decrease the peak compression forces in L4/L5 during the investigated heavy loaded tasks for all motion sequences and exoskeleton support modes (mean reduction of 16.0% without the optimal support mode). In particular, asymmetric motions (mean reduction of 11.9%) can be relieved more than symmetric ones (mean reduction of 8.9%) by the exoskeleton support modes without the optimal assistance. The analysis of metabolic energy consumption indicates a high dependency on lifting techniques for the effectiveness of the exoskeleton support. While the exoskeleton support substantially reduces the metabolic cost for the free-squat motions, a slightly higher energy consumption was found for the symmetric stoop motion technique with the active and optimal support mode.

An Occupational Shoulder Exoskeleton Reduces Muscle Activity and Fatigue During Overhead Work

Objective. This paper assesses the effect of a passive shoulder exoskeleton prototype, Exo4Work, on muscle activity, muscle fatigue and subjective experience during simulated occupational overhead and non-overhead work. Methods. Twenty-two healthy males performed six simulated industrial tasks with and without Exo4Work exoskeleton in a randomized counterbalanced cross-over design. During these tasks electromyography, heart rate, metabolic cost, subjective parameters and performance parameters were acquired. The effect of the exoskeleton and the body side on these parameters was investigated. Results. Anterior deltoid activity and fatigue reduced up to 16% and 41%, respectively, during isometric overhead work, and minimized hindrance of the device during non-overhead tasks. Wearing the exoskeleton increased feelings of frustration and increased discomfort in the areas where the exoskeleton and the body interfaced. The assistive effect of the exoskeleton was less prominent during dynamic tasks. Conclusion. This exoskeleton may reduce muscle activity and delay development of muscle fatigue in an overhead working scenario. For dynamic applications, the exoskeleton's assistive profile, which mimics the gravitational torque of the arm, is potentially sub-optimal. Significance. This evaluation paper is the first to report reduced muscle fatigue and activity when working with an occupational shoulder exoskeleton providing one third of the gravitational torque of the arm during overhead work. These results stress the potential of occupational shoulder exoskeletons in overhead working situations and may direct towards longitudinal field experiments. Additionally, this experiment may stimulate future work to further investigate the effect of different assistive profiles.

Assoziation, Erwartungen und Barrieren eines Exoskeletteinsatzes in kleinen mittelständischen Unternehmen

Hintergrund

Arbeitsbedingte Muskel-Skelett-Erkrankungen (MSE) führen in der herstellenden Industrie zu Krankheitstagen und haben erhebliche wirtschaftliche Folgen für die Unternehmen und die Volkswirtschaft. Exoskelette können den Körper im Umgang mit schwerer Last oder in Zwangshaltungen unterstützen. Besonders in großen Unternehmen der Automobilindustrie werden Exoskelette pilotiert. In kleinen und mittelständischen Unternehmen (KMU) werden Exoskelette bisher jedoch wenig eingesetzt, und ihre Anwendung dort wurde wissenschaftlich bisher kaum untersucht. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die Barrieren der Exoskelett-Implementierung und die Erwartungen an deren Einsatz im produzierenden Gewerbe zu ermitteln.

Methode

In sechs produzierenden Unternehmen wurden teilstrukturierte Leitfadeninterviews durchgeführt und analysiert.

Ergebnisse

In den Unternehmen werden vielfältige Tätigkeiten bis an die Belastungsgrenze ausgeführt. Allgemein erwartet man durch die Anwendung von Exoskeletten Arbeitserleichterungen sowie wirtschaftliche Vorteile. Bedenken bestehen hinsichtlich des Einsatzes aufgrund des Kostenfaktors, eines ungewissen Nutzens und mangelnden Tragekomforts. Insbesondere werden mangelnde Kenntnisse über den Effekt eines Exoskeletts deutlich.

Fazit

Die vorgestellten Interviewergebnisse sind ein Schritt im interdisziplinären Prozess der Weiterentwicklung und Implementierung von Exoskeletten in der herstellenden Industrie. Bedenken und Unwissenheit potenzieller Unternehmen und Anwender müssen adressiert werden, auch um eine hohe Nutzerakzeptanz zu schaffen. Folgestudien, die die Ermittlung des Bedarfs mit einer besseren Trennschärfe erheben, könnten weitere Erkenntnisse liefern.