1
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Mirrielees J, Kirpes RM, Haas SM, Rauschenberg CD, Matrai PA, Remenapp A, Boschi VL, Grannas AM, Pratt KA, Ault AP. Probing Individual Particles Generated at the Freshwater-Seawater Interface through Combined Raman, Photothermal Infrared, and X-ray Spectroscopic Characterization. ACS MEASUREMENT SCIENCE AU 2022; 2:605-619. [PMID: 36589347 PMCID: PMC9793585 DOI: 10.1021/acsmeasuresciau.2c00041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2022] [Revised: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Sea spray aerosol (SSA) is one of the largest global sources of atmospheric aerosol, but little is known about SSA generated in coastal regions with salinity gradients near estuaries and river outflows. SSA particles are chemically complex with substantial particle-to-particle variability due to changes in water temperature, salinity, and biological activity. In previous studies, the ability to resolve the aerosol composition to the level of individual particles has proven necessary for the accurate parameterization of the direct and indirect aerosol effects; therefore, measurements of individual SSA particles are needed for the characterization of this large source of atmospheric aerosol. An integrated analytical measurement approach is required to probe the chemical composition of individual SSA particles. By combining complementary vibrational microspectroscopic (Raman and optical photothermal infrared, O-PTIR) measurements with elemental information from computer-controlled scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (CCSEM-EDX), we gained unique insights into the individual particle chemical composition and morphology. Herein, we analyzed particles from four experiments on laboratory-based SSA production using coastal seawater collected in January 2018 from the Gulf of Maine. Individual salt particles were enriched in organics compared to that in natural seawater, both with and without added microalgal filtrate, with greater enrichment observed for smaller particle sizes, as evidenced by higher carbon/sodium ratios. Functional group analysis was carried out using the Raman and infrared spectra collected from individual SSA particles. Additionally, the Raman spectra were compared with a library of Raman spectra consisting of marine-derived organic compounds. Saccharides, followed by fatty acids, were the dominant components of the organic coatings surrounding the salt cores of these particles. This combined Raman, infrared, and X-ray spectroscopic approach will enable further understanding of the factors determining the individual particle composition, which is important for understanding the impacts of SSA produced within estuaries and river outflows, as well as areas of snow and ice melt.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica
A. Mirrielees
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Rachel M. Kirpes
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Savannah M. Haas
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Department
of Chemistry, Villanova University, Villanova, Pennsylvania 19085, United States
| | | | - Patricia A. Matrai
- Bigelow
Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, East Boothbay, Maine 04544, United States
| | - Allison Remenapp
- Department
of Chemistry, Villanova University, Villanova, Pennsylvania 19085, United States
| | - Vanessa L. Boschi
- Department
of Chemistry, Villanova University, Villanova, Pennsylvania 19085, United States
| | - Amanda M. Grannas
- Department
of Chemistry, Villanova University, Villanova, Pennsylvania 19085, United States
| | - Kerri A. Pratt
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Department
of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University
of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United
States
| | - Andrew P. Ault
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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2
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Ault AP, Axson JL. Atmospheric Aerosol Chemistry: Spectroscopic and Microscopic Advances. Anal Chem 2016; 89:430-452. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b04670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew P. Ault
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Department
of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Jessica L. Axson
- Department
of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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3
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Tang M, Cziczo DJ, Grassian VH. Interactions of Water with Mineral Dust Aerosol: Water Adsorption, Hygroscopicity, Cloud Condensation, and Ice Nucleation. Chem Rev 2016; 116:4205-59. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 228] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mingjin Tang
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Daniel J. Cziczo
- Department
of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences and Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Vicki H. Grassian
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
- Departments
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Nanoengineering and Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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4
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Lee C, Sultana CM, Collins DB, Santander MV, Axson JL, Malfatti F, Cornwell GC, Grandquist JR, Deane GB, Stokes MD, Azam F, Grassian VH, Prather KA. Advancing Model Systems for Fundamental Laboratory Studies of Sea Spray Aerosol Using the Microbial Loop. J Phys Chem A 2015. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.5b03488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Lee
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, California 92093, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering and ∥Department of
Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Camille M. Sultana
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, California 92093, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering and ∥Department of
Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Douglas B. Collins
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, California 92093, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering and ∥Department of
Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Mitchell V. Santander
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, California 92093, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering and ∥Department of
Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Jessica L. Axson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, California 92093, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering and ∥Department of
Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Francesca Malfatti
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, California 92093, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering and ∥Department of
Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Gavin C. Cornwell
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, California 92093, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering and ∥Department of
Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Joshua R. Grandquist
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, California 92093, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering and ∥Department of
Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Grant B. Deane
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, California 92093, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering and ∥Department of
Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - M. Dale Stokes
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, California 92093, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering and ∥Department of
Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Farooq Azam
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, California 92093, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering and ∥Department of
Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Vicki H. Grassian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, California 92093, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering and ∥Department of
Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Kimberly A. Prather
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, California 92093, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering and ∥Department of
Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
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5
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Morris HS, Grassian VH, Tivanski AV. Humidity-dependent surface tension measurements of individual inorganic and organic submicrometre liquid particles. Chem Sci 2015; 6:3242-3247. [PMID: 28706693 PMCID: PMC5490419 DOI: 10.1039/c4sc03716b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Accepted: 03/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Atomic force microscopy has been utilized to measure the surface tension of atmospherically relevant droplets smaller than one micron.
Surface tension, an important property of liquids, is easily measured for bulk samples. However, for droplets smaller than one micron in size, there are currently no reported measurements. In this study, atomic force microscopy (AFM) and force spectroscopy have been utilized to measure surface tension of individual submicron sized droplets at ambient pressure and controlled relative humidity (RH). Since the surface tension of atmospheric aerosols is a key factor in understanding aerosol climate effects, three atmospherically relevant systems (NaCl, malonic and glutaric acids) were studied. Single particle AFM measurements were successfully implemented in measuring the surface tension of deliquesced particles on the order of 200 to 500 nm in diameter. Deliquesced particles continuously uptake water at high RH, which changes the concentration and surface tension of the droplets. Therefore, surface tension as a function of RH was measured. AFM based surface tension measurements are close to predicted values based on bulk measurements and activities of these three chemical systems. Non-ideal behaviour in concentrated organic acid droplets is thought to be important and the reason for differences observed between bulk solution predictions and AFM data. Consequently, these measurements are crucial in order to improve atmospheric climate models as direct measurements hitherto have been previously inaccessible due to instrument limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly S Morris
- Department of Chemistry , University of Iowa , Iowa City , Iowa 52242 , USA . ;
| | - Vicki H Grassian
- Department of Chemistry , University of Iowa , Iowa City , Iowa 52242 , USA . ;
| | - Alexei V Tivanski
- Department of Chemistry , University of Iowa , Iowa City , Iowa 52242 , USA . ;
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6
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Ault AP, Guasco TL, Baltrusaitis J, Ryder OS, Trueblood JV, Collins DB, Ruppel MJ, Cuadra-Rodriguez LA, Prather KA, Grassian VH. Heterogeneous Reactivity of Nitric Acid with Nascent Sea Spray Aerosol: Large Differences Observed between and within Individual Particles. J Phys Chem Lett 2014; 5:2493-2500. [PMID: 26277935 DOI: 10.1021/jz5008802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Current climate and atmospheric chemistry models assume that all sea spray particles react as if they are pure NaCl. However, recent studies of sea spray aerosol particles have shown that distinct particle types exist (including sea salt, organic carbon, and biological particles) as well as mixtures of these and, within each particle type, there is a range of single-particle chemical compositions. Because of these differences, individual particles should display a range of reactivities with trace atmospheric gases. Herein, to address this, we study the composition of individual sea spray aerosol particles after heterogeneous reaction with nitric acid. As expected, a replacement reaction of chloride with nitrate is observed; however, there is a large range of reactivities spanning from no reaction to complete reaction between and within individual sea spray aerosol particles. These data clearly support the need for laboratory studies of individual, environmentally relevant particles to improve our fundamental understanding as to the properties that determine reactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew P Ault
- †Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Timothy L Guasco
- ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Jonas Baltrusaitis
- †Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Olivia S Ryder
- ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Jonathan V Trueblood
- †Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Douglas B Collins
- ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Matthew J Ruppel
- ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Luis A Cuadra-Rodriguez
- ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Kimberly A Prather
- ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
- §Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Vicki H Grassian
- †Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
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7
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Sobanska S, Falgayrac G, Rimetz-Planchon J, Perdrix E, Brémard C, Barbillat J. Resolving the internal structure of individual atmospheric aerosol particle by the combination of Atomic Force Microscopy, ESEM–EDX, Raman and ToF–SIMS imaging. Microchem J 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2013.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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8
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Eom HJ, Gupta D, Li X, Jung HJ, Kim H, Ro CU. Influence of Collecting Substrates on the Characterization of Hygroscopic Properties of Inorganic Aerosol Particles. Anal Chem 2014; 86:2648-56. [DOI: 10.1021/ac4042075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hyo-Jin Eom
- Department
of Chemistry, Inha University, 253 Yonghyun-dong, Nam-gu, Incheon 402-751, Republic of Korea
| | - Dhrubajyoti Gupta
- Department
of Chemistry, Inha University, 253 Yonghyun-dong, Nam-gu, Incheon 402-751, Republic of Korea
| | - Xue Li
- Department
of Chemistry, Inha University, 253 Yonghyun-dong, Nam-gu, Incheon 402-751, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae-Jin Jung
- Department
of Chemistry, Inha University, 253 Yonghyun-dong, Nam-gu, Incheon 402-751, Republic of Korea
| | - HyeKyeong Kim
- Department
of Chemistry, Inha University, 253 Yonghyun-dong, Nam-gu, Incheon 402-751, Republic of Korea
| | - Chul-Un Ro
- Department
of Chemistry, Inha University, 253 Yonghyun-dong, Nam-gu, Incheon 402-751, Republic of Korea
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9
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Jung HJ, Eom HJ, Kang HW, Moreau M, Sobanska S, Ro CU. Combined use of quantitative ED-EPMA, Raman microspectrometry, and ATR-FTIR imaging techniques for the analysis of individual particles. Analyst 2014; 139:3949-60. [DOI: 10.1039/c4an00380b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Quantitative ED-EPMA, RMS, and ATR-FTIR imaging techniques were used in combination for the analysis of the same individual particles for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hae-Jin Jung
- Air Quality Research Division
- National Institute of Environmental Research
- Seo-gu, South Korea
| | - Hyo-Jin Eom
- Department of Chemistry
- Inha University
- Nam Gu, South Korea
| | - Hyun-Woo Kang
- Department of Chemistry
- Inha University
- Nam Gu, South Korea
| | - Myriam Moreau
- Laboratoire de Spectrochimie Infrarouge et Raman
- UMR CNRS 8516
- Université de Lille 1
- 59655 Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex, France
| | - Sophie Sobanska
- Laboratoire de Spectrochimie Infrarouge et Raman
- UMR CNRS 8516
- Université de Lille 1
- 59655 Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex, France
| | - Chul-Un Ro
- Department of Chemistry
- Inha University
- Nam Gu, South Korea
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10
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Raijada D, Genina N, Fors D, Wisaeus E, Peltonen J, Rantanen J, Sandler N. A Step Toward Development of Printable Dosage Forms for Poorly Soluble Drugs. J Pharm Sci 2013; 102:3694-704. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.23678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2013] [Revised: 06/20/2013] [Accepted: 07/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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11
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Ault AP, Guasco TL, Ryder OS, Baltrusaitis J, Cuadra-Rodriguez LA, Collins DB, Ruppel MJ, Bertram TH, Prather KA, Grassian VH. Inside versus Outside: Ion Redistribution in Nitric Acid Reacted Sea Spray Aerosol Particles as Determined by Single Particle Analysis. J Am Chem Soc 2013; 135:14528-31. [DOI: 10.1021/ja407117x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew P. Ault
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Timothy L. Guasco
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Olivia S. Ryder
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Jonas Baltrusaitis
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Luis A. Cuadra-Rodriguez
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Douglas B. Collins
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Matthew J. Ruppel
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Timothy H. Bertram
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Kimberly A. Prather
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Scripps
Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Vicki H. Grassian
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
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12
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Ma Q, Ma J, Liu C, Lai C, He H. Laboratory study on the hygroscopic behavior of external and internal C2-C4 dicarboxylic acid-NaCl mixtures. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2013; 47:10381-10388. [PMID: 23941508 DOI: 10.1021/es4023267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Atmospheric aerosol is usually found to be a mixture of various inorganic and organic components in field measurements, whereas the effect of this mixing state on the hygroscopicity of aerosol particles has remained unknown. In this study, the hygroscopic behavior of mixtures of C2-C4 dicarboxylic acids and NaCl was investigated. For both externally and internally mixed malonic acid-NaCl and succinic acid-NaCl particles, correlation between water content and chemical composition was observed and the water content of these mixtures at relative humidity (RH) above 80% can be well predicted by the Zdanovskii-Stokes-Robinson (ZSR) method. In contrast, a nonlinear relation between the total water content of the mixtures and the water content of each chemical composition separately was found for oxalic acid-NaCl mixtures. Compared to the values predicted by the ZSR method, the dissolution of oxalic acid in external mixtures resulted in an increase in the total water content, whereas the formation of less hygroscopic disodium oxalate in internal mixtures led to a significant decrease in the total water content. Furthermore, we found that the hygroscopicity of the sodium dicarboxylate plays a critical role in determining the aqueous chemistry of dicarboxylic acid-NaCl mixtures during the humidifying and dehumidifying process. It was also found that the hydration of oxalic acid and the deliquescence of NaCl did not change in external oxalic acid-NaCl mixtures. The deliquescence relative humidity (DRHs) for both malonic acid and NaCl decreased in both external and internal mixtures. These results could help in understanding the conversion processes of dicarboxylic acids to dicarboxylate salts, as well as the substitution of Cl by oxalate in the atmosphere. It was demonstrated that the effect of coexisting components on the hygroscopic behavior of mixed aerosols should not be neglected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingxin Ma
- Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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13
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Kelly ST, Nigge P, Prakash S, Laskin A, Wang B, Tyliszczak T, Leone SR, Gilles MK. An environmental sample chamber for reliable scanning transmission x-ray microscopy measurements under water vapor. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2013; 84:073708. [PMID: 23902077 DOI: 10.1063/1.4816649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
We have designed, fabricated, and tested a compact gas-phase reactor for performing in situ soft x-ray scanning transmission x-ray microscopy (STXM) measurements. The reactor mounts directly to the existing sample holder used in the majority of STXM instruments around the world and installs with minimal instrument reconfiguration. The reactor accommodates many gas atmospheres, but was designed specifically to address the needs of measurements under water vapor. An on-board sensor measures the relative humidity and temperature inside the reactor, minimizing uncertainties associated with measuring these quantities outside the instrument. The reactor reduces x-ray absorption from the process gas by over 85% compared to analogous experiments with the entire STXM instrument filled with process gas. Reduced absorption by the process gas allows data collection at full instrumental resolution, minimizes radiation dose to the sample, and results in much more stable imaging conditions. The reactor is in use at the STXM instruments at beamlines 11.0.2 and 5.3.2.2 at the Advanced Light Source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen T Kelly
- Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
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14
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Ault AP, Moffet RC, Baltrusaitis J, Collins DB, Ruppel MJ, Cuadra-Rodriguez LA, Zhao D, Guasco TL, Ebben CJ, Geiger FM, Bertram TH, Prather KA, Grassian VH. Size-dependent changes in sea spray aerosol composition and properties with different seawater conditions. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2013; 47:5603-12. [PMID: 23638996 DOI: 10.1021/es400416g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
A great deal of uncertainty exists regarding the chemical diversity of particles in sea spray aerosol (SSA), as well as the degree of mixing between inorganic and organic species in individual SSA particles. Therefore, in this study, single particle analysis was performed on SSA particles, integrating transmission electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray analysis and scanning transmission X-ray microscopy with near edge X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy, with a focus on quantifying the relative fractions of different particle types from 30 nm to 1 μm. SSA particles were produced from seawater in a unique ocean-atmosphere facility equipped with breaking waves. Changes to the SSA composition and properties after the addition of biological (bacteria and phytoplankton) and organic material (ZoBell growth media) were probed. Submicrometer SSA particles could be separated into two distinct populations: one with a characteristic sea salt core composed primarily of NaCl and an organic carbon and Mg(2+) coating (SS-OC), and a second type consisting of organic carbon (OC) species which are more homogeneously mixed with cations and anions, but not chloride. SS-OC particles exhibit a wide range of sizes, compositions, morphologies, and distributions of elements within each particle. After addition of biological and organic material to the seawater, a change occurs in particle morphology and crystallization behavior associated with increasing organic content for SS-OC particles. The fraction of OC-type particles, which are mainly present below 180 nm, becomes dramatically enhanced with increased biological activity. These changes with size and seawater composition have important implications for atmospheric processes such as cloud droplet activation and heterogeneous reactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew P Ault
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa , Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
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15
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Ling L, Li YQ. Measurement of Raman spectra of single airborne absorbing particles trapped by a single laser beam. OPTICS LETTERS 2013; 38:416-418. [PMID: 23455087 DOI: 10.1364/ol.38.000416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate a method for optical trapping and Raman spectroscopy of micron-sized, airborne absorbing particles using a single focused laser beam. A single Gaussian beam at 532 nm is used to trap and precisely manipulate absorbing airborne particles. The fluctuation of the position of the trapped particles is substantially reduced by controlling the power of the laser beam with a position-sensitive detector and a locking circuit. Raman spectra of the position-stabilized particles or clusters are then measured with an objective and CCD spectrograph.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Ling
- Department of Physics, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27858-4353, USA
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16
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Sohn GJ, Choi HJ, Jeon IY, Chang DW, Dai L, Baek JB. Water-dispersible, sulfonated hyperbranched poly(ether-ketone) grafted multiwalled carbon nanotubes as oxygen reduction catalysts. ACS NANO 2012; 6:6345-6355. [PMID: 22680297 DOI: 10.1021/nn301863d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
To endorse sufficient water affinity to multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), dendritic hyperbranched poly(ether-ketone) (HPEK) was first covalently grafted to the surface of a MWCNT via a Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction. The resultant HPEK-grafted MWCNT (HPEK-g-MWCNT) was subsequently sulfonated in chlorosulfonic acid to produce sulfonated HPEK-g-MWCNT (SHPEK-g-MWCNT), which is dispersible well in water showing a zeta potential value of -57.8 mV. The SHPEK-g-MWCNT paper simply formed by filtration of aqueous dispersion has a sheet resistance as low as 63 Ω/sq. Its thin film shows a high electrocatalytic activity for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). Thus, the newly produced water-dispersible MWCNT is a new class of high performance cathode material for ORR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gyung-Joo Sohn
- Interdisciplinary School of Green Energy/Low-Dimensional Carbon Materials Center, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, 100 Banyeon, Ulsan 689-798, South Korea
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17
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Arenas KJL, Schill SR, Malla A, Hudson PK. Deliquescence Phase Transition Measurements by Quartz Crystal Microbalance Frequency Shifts. J Phys Chem A 2012; 116:7658-67. [PMID: 22742475 DOI: 10.1021/jp3016722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen Jane L. Arenas
- California State University, Fullerton, 800 N. State
College, Fullerton, California 92834, United States
| | - Steven R. Schill
- California State University, Fullerton, 800 N. State
College, Fullerton, California 92834, United States
| | - Ammaji Malla
- California State University, Fullerton, 800 N. State
College, Fullerton, California 92834, United States
| | - Paula K. Hudson
- California State University, Fullerton, 800 N. State
College, Fullerton, California 92834, United States
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18
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Sobanska S, Hwang H, Choël M, Jung HJ, Eom HJ, Kim H, Barbillat J, Ro CU. Investigation of the Chemical Mixing State of Individual Asian Dust Particles by the Combined Use of Electron Probe X-ray Microanalysis and Raman Microspectrometry. Anal Chem 2012; 84:3145-54. [DOI: 10.1021/ac2029584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Sobanska
- Laboratoire de Spectrochimie
Infrarouge et Raman, UMR CNRS 8516, Université de Lille 1, Bât. C5, 59655 Villeneuve d’Ascq
Cedex, France
| | - HeeJin Hwang
- Korea Polar Research Institute, Songdo Dong, Yeonsu Gu, 406-840 Incheon,
South Korea
| | - Marie Choël
- Laboratoire de Spectrochimie
Infrarouge et Raman, UMR CNRS 8516, Université de Lille 1, Bât. C5, 59655 Villeneuve d’Ascq
Cedex, France
| | - Hae-Jin Jung
- Department of
Chemistry, Inha University, Yonghyun Dong,
Nam Gu, 402-751 Incheon,
South Korea
| | - Hyo-Jin Eom
- Department of
Chemistry, Inha University, Yonghyun Dong,
Nam Gu, 402-751 Incheon,
South Korea
| | - HyeKyeong Kim
- Department of
Chemistry, Inha University, Yonghyun Dong,
Nam Gu, 402-751 Incheon,
South Korea
| | - Jacques Barbillat
- Laboratoire de Spectrochimie
Infrarouge et Raman, UMR CNRS 8516, Université de Lille 1, Bât. C5, 59655 Villeneuve d’Ascq
Cedex, France
| | - Chul-Un Ro
- Department of
Chemistry, Inha University, Yonghyun Dong,
Nam Gu, 402-751 Incheon,
South Korea
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19
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Yao H, Kitaoka N, Sasaki A. Chemical transformation of chiral monolayer-protected gold clusters: observation of ligand size effects on optical and chiroptical responses. NANOSCALE 2012; 4:955-963. [PMID: 22222550 DOI: 10.1039/c2nr11544a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Versatile functionalization of metal clusters is a key step in understanding the reactivity of protective monolayers. We here demonstrate that reaction of the outermost amino groups on (S)-/(R)-penicillamine-protected gold clusters with ethyl isocyanate readily modifies the chiral surface structure through carbamoylation. Interestingly, the clusters are electrophoretically separated by the size of the surface ligand, not by the size of the gold core, which is revealed by UV-vis, IR, and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy as well as SAXS measurements. The ligand size (or length) is extended through additional reactions of the carbamoylated amino groups with isocyanate, while the chemical similarity in ligand structures is realized by their IR spectral similarity. Optical and chiroptical responses of the separated cluster compounds are thus overall similar to each other, but a close inspection reveals that the ligand size has a small but distinct influence on the chiroptical response of the gold clusters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Yao
- Graduate School of Material Science, University of Hyogo, 3-2-1 Koto, Ako-gun, Hyogo 678-1297, Japan.
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20
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Ma Q, Liu Y, Liu C, He H. Heterogeneous reaction of acetic acid on MgO, α-Al2O3, and CaCO3 and the effect on the hygroscopic behaviour of these particles. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2012; 14:8403-9. [DOI: 10.1039/c2cp40510e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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21
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan-Hu Lee
- Kent State University, College of Public Health, 850 Hilltop Drive, Kent, Ohio 44240, United States
| | - Heather C. Allen
- The Ohio State University, Department of Chemistry, 100 West 18th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
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22
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Maskey S, Kang T, Jung HJ, Ro CU. Single-particle characterization of indoor aerosol particles collected at an underground shopping area in Seoul, Korea. INDOOR AIR 2011; 21:12-24. [PMID: 20846210 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0668.2010.00677.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED In this study, single-particle characterization of aerosol particles collected at an underground shopping area was performed for the first time. A quantitative single-particle analytical technique, low-Z particle electron probe X-ray microanalysis, was used to characterize a total of 7900 individual particles for eight sets of aerosol samples collected at an underground shopping area in Seoul, Korea. Based on secondary electron images and X-ray spectral data of individual particles, fourteen particle types were identified, in which primary soil-derived particles were the most abundant, followed by carbonaceous, Fe-containing, secondary soil-derived, and secondary sea-salt particles. Carbonaceous particles exist in three types: organic carbon, carbon-rich, and CNO-rich. A significant number of textile particles with chemical composition C, N, and O were encountered in some of the aerosol samples, which were from the textile shops and/or from clothes of passersby. Primary soil-derived particles showed seasonal variation, with peak values in spring samples, reflecting higher air exchange between indoor and outdoor environments in the spring. Secondary soil-derived, secondary sea-salt, and ammonium sulfate particles were frequently encountered in winter samples. Fe-containing particles, contributed from a nearby subway station, were in the range of about 19% relative abundances for all samples. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS In underground shopping areas, particulate matters can be a considerable health hazard to the workers, shoppers, passersby, and shop-keepers as they spend their considerable time in this closed microenvironment. However, no study on the characteristics of indoor aerosols in an underground shopping area has been reported to our knowledge. This work provides detailed information on characteristics of underground shopping area aerosols on a single particle level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shila Maskey
- Department of Chemistry, Inha University, Yonghyun-dong, Incheon, Korea
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23
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Raman micro-spectrometry as a technique for investigating heterogeneous reactions on individual atmospheric particles. Sci China Chem 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s11426-010-4182-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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24
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Ahn KH, Kim SM, Jung HJ, Lee MJ, Eom HJ, Maskey S, Ro CU. Combined Use of Optical and Electron Microscopic Techniques for the Measurement of Hygroscopic Property, Chemical Composition, and Morphology of Individual Aerosol Particles. Anal Chem 2010; 82:7999-8009. [DOI: 10.1021/ac101432y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kang-Ho Ahn
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hanyang University, Ansan, 425-791, Korea, and Department of Chemistry, Inha University, Incheon, 402-751, Korea
| | - Sun-Man Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hanyang University, Ansan, 425-791, Korea, and Department of Chemistry, Inha University, Incheon, 402-751, Korea
| | - Hae-Jin Jung
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hanyang University, Ansan, 425-791, Korea, and Department of Chemistry, Inha University, Incheon, 402-751, Korea
| | - Mi-Jung Lee
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hanyang University, Ansan, 425-791, Korea, and Department of Chemistry, Inha University, Incheon, 402-751, Korea
| | - Hyo-Jin Eom
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hanyang University, Ansan, 425-791, Korea, and Department of Chemistry, Inha University, Incheon, 402-751, Korea
| | - Shila Maskey
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hanyang University, Ansan, 425-791, Korea, and Department of Chemistry, Inha University, Incheon, 402-751, Korea
| | - Chul-Un Ro
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hanyang University, Ansan, 425-791, Korea, and Department of Chemistry, Inha University, Incheon, 402-751, Korea
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25
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Ma Q, Liu Y, He H. The Utilization of Physisorption Analyzer for Studying the Hygroscopic Properties of Atmospheric Relevant Particles. J Phys Chem A 2010; 114:4232-7. [DOI: 10.1021/jp909340v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qingxin Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 18 Shuangqing Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Yongchun Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 18 Shuangqing Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Hong He
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 18 Shuangqing Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100085, China
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26
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Abstract
In situ diffusion reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy was used to study the water adsorption on mineral oxides (SiO2, alpha-Al2O3, MgO, Fe2O3, TiO2). The results showed that all the water adsorption isotherms were well fitted with the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET)-III type equation, with the calculated monolayers occurring at 24%-30% relative humidity. It showed that about 1-5 layers of water adsorbed on oxides surfaces in ambient relative humidity (20%-90%). The measured deliquescence relative humidity of NaCl was (74 +/- 1)%, which demonstrated that DRIFTS is a useful method for the study the hygroscopic behavior of mineral dust. In addition, the limits of DRIFTS were also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingxin Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China.
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27
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Wise ME, Freney EJ, Tyree CA, Allen JO, Martin ST, Russell LM, Buseck PR. Hygroscopic behavior and liquid-layer composition of aerosol particles generated from natural and artificial seawater. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1029/2008jd010449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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28
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Wang L, Meng Z, Yu Y, Meng Q, Chen D. Synthesis of hybrid linear-dendritic block copolymers with carboxylic functional groups for the biomimetic mineralization of calcium carbonate. POLYMER 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2008.01.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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29
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Liu Y, Cain JP, Wang H, Laskin A. Kinetic Study of Heterogeneous Reaction of Deliquesced NaCl Particles with Gaseous HNO3 Using Particle-on-Substrate Stagnation Flow Reactor Approach. J Phys Chem A 2007; 111:10026-43. [PMID: 17850118 DOI: 10.1021/jp072005p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Heterogeneous reaction kinetics of gaseous nitric acid with deliquesced sodium chloride particles NaCl(aq) + HNO3(g) --> NaNO3(aq) + HCl(g) were investigated with a novel particle-on-substrate stagnation flow reactor (PS-SFR) approach under conditions, including particle size, relative humidity, and reaction time, directly relevant to the atmospheric chemistry of sea salt particles. Particles deposited onto an electron microscopy grid substrate were exposed to the reacting gas at atmospheric pressure and room temperature by impingement via a stagnation flow inside the reactor. The reactor design and choice of flow parameters were guided by computational fluid dynamics to ensure uniformity of the diffusion flux to all particles undergoing reaction. The reaction kinetics was followed by observing chloride depletion in the particles by computer-controlled scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (CCSEM/EDX). The validity of the current approach was examined first by conducting experiments with median dry particle diameter D(p) = 0.82 microm, 80% relative humidity, particle loading densities 4 x 10(4) <or= N(s) <or= 7 x 10(6) cm(-2) and free stream HNO3 concentrations 2, 7, and 22 ppb. Upon deliquescence the droplet diameter D(d) approximately doubles. The apparent, pseudo-first-order rate constant determined in these experiments varied with particle loading and HNO3 concentration in a manner consistent with a diffusion-kinetic analysis reported earlier (Laskin, A.; Wang, H.; Robertson, W. H.; Cowin, J. P.; Ezell, M. J.; Finlayson-Pitts, B. J. J. Phys. Chem. A 2006, 110, 10619). The intrinsic, second-order rate constant was obtained as kII = 5.7 x 10(-15) cm3 molecule(-1) s(-1) in the limit of zero particle loading and by assuming that the substrate is inert to HNO3. Under this loading condition the experimental, net reaction uptake coefficient was found to be gamma(net) = 0.11 with an uncertainty factor of 3. Additional experiments examined the variations of HNO3 uptake on pure NaCl, a sea salt-like mixture of NaCl and MgCl2 (Mg-to-Cl molar ratio of 0.114) and real sea salt particles as a function of relative humidity. Results show behavior of the uptake coefficient to be similar for all three types of salt particles with D(p) approximately 0.9 miccrom over the relative humidity range 20-80%. Gaseous HNO3 uptake coefficient peaks around a relative humidity of 55%, with gamma(net) well over 0.2 for sea salt. Below the efflorescence relative humidity the uptake coefficient declines with decreasing RH for all three sea salt types, and it does so without exhibiting a sudden shutoff of reactivity. The uptake of HNO3 on sea salt particles was more rapid than that on the mixture of NaCl and MgCl2, and uptake on both sea salt and sea salt-like mixture was faster than on pure NaCl. The uptake of HNO3 on deliquesced, pure NaCl particles was also examined over the particle size range of 0.57 <or= D(p) <or= 1.7 microm (1.1 <or= D(d) <or= 3.4 microm) under a constant relative humidity of 80%. The uptake coefficient decreases monotonically with an increase in particle size. Application of a resistance model of reaction kinetics and reactant diffusion over a single particle suggests that, over the range of particle size studied, the uptake is largely controlled by gaseous reactant diffusion from the free stream to the particle surface. In addition, a combined consideration of uptake coefficients obtained in the present study and those previously reported for substantially smaller droplets (D(d) approximately 0.1 microm) (Saul, T. D.; Tolocka, M. P.; Johnston, M. V. J. Phys. Chem. A 2006, 110, 7614) suggests that the peak reactivity occurs at a droplet diameter of approximately 0.7 microm, which is immediately below the size at which sea salt aerosols begin to notably contribute to light scattering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Liu
- William R. Wiley Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, PO Box 999, MSIN K8-88, Richland, Washington 99352, USA
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30
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Wise ME, Semeniuk TA, Bruintjes R, Martin ST, Russell LM, Buseck PR. Hygroscopic behavior of NaCl-bearing natural aerosol particles using environmental transmission electron microscopy. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1029/2006jd007678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew E. Wise
- School of Earth and Space Exploration and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; Arizona State University; Tempe Arizona USA
| | - Trudi A. Semeniuk
- School of Earth and Space Exploration and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; Arizona State University; Tempe Arizona USA
| | | | - Scot T. Martin
- Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences; Harvard University; Cambridge Massachusetts USA
| | - Lynn M. Russell
- Scripps Institute of Oceanography; University of California; San Diego California USA
| | - Peter R. Buseck
- School of Earth and Space Exploration and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; Arizona State University; Tempe Arizona USA
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31
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Gibson ER, Hudson PK, Grassian VH. Physicochemical Properties of Nitrate Aerosols: Implications for the Atmosphere. J Phys Chem A 2006; 110:11785-99. [PMID: 17048810 DOI: 10.1021/jp063821k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
As aerosols, such as sea salt and mineral dust, are transported through the atmosphere they undergo heterogeneous reactions with nitrogen oxides to form nitrate salts. The nitrate salt can have quite different physicochemical properties than the original aerosol, resulting in an aerosol that will markedly differ in its climate impact, heterogeneous chemistry, and photoactivity. In this Feature Article, we will review some aspects of the importance of aqueous nitrate aerosols as well as describe a new multi-analysis aerosol reactor system (MAARS) that is used to measure the physicochemical properties of these atmospherically relevant aerosols. Here we show measurements of the hygroscopic properties, cloud condensation nuclei activity, and FTIR extinction of nitrate salt aerosol. In particular, we have measured the hygroscopic growth of 100 nm size-selected nitrate particles including NaNO3, Ca(NO3)2, Mg(NO3)2, and a 1:1 mixture of Ca(NO3)2 and Mg(NO3)2 as a function of relative humidity (RH) at 298 K. Using Köhler theory, we have quantified the water content of these particles with increasing RH. FTIR extinction measurements of the full size distribution of each of the nitrate aerosols are analyzed to yield information about the local solvation environment of the nitrate ions and the long-wavelength light scattering of the particles at different RH. Furthermore, we have measured and compared the cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) activity of CaCO3, a large component of mineral dust aerosol, and Ca(NO3)2, a product of atmospherically aged CaCO3 through reaction with nitrogen oxides, at supersaturations from 0.1% to 0.9%. These quantitative physicochemical data are needed if we are to better understand the chemistry as well as the climate effects of atmospheric aerosols as they are entrained, transported, reacted, and aged in the atmosphere. Our studies here focus on aqueous nitrate salts, the products of the reaction of nitrogen oxides with sea salt and mineral dust aerosol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth R Gibson
- Department of Chemistry and the Center for Global and Environmental Research, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
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32
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Laskin A, Wang H, Robertson WH, Cowin JP, Ezell MJ, Finlayson-Pitts BJ. A New Approach to Determining Gas-Particle Reaction Probabilities and Application to the Heterogeneous Reaction of Deliquesced Sodium Chloride Particles with Gas-Phase Hydroxyl Radicals. J Phys Chem A 2006; 110:10619-27. [PMID: 16956244 DOI: 10.1021/jp063263+] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The reaction kinetics for gaseous hydroxyl radicals (OH) with deliquesced sodium chloride particles (NaCl(aq)) were investigated using a novel experimental approach. The technique utilizes the exposure of substrate-deposited aerosol particles to reactive gases followed by chemical analysis of the particles using computer-controlled scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive analysis of X-rays (CCSEM/EDX) capability. Experiments were performed at room temperature and atmospheric pressure with deliquesced NaCl particles in the micron size range at 70-80% RH and with OH concentrations in the range of 1 to 7 x 10(9) cm(-3). The apparent, pseudo first-order rate constant for the reaction was determined from measurements of changes in the chloride concentration of individual particles upon reaction with OH as a function of the particle loading on the substrate. Quantitative treatment of the data using a model that incorporates both diffusion and reaction kinetics yields a lower limit to the net reaction probability of gamma(net) > or = 0.1, with an overall uncertainty of a factor of 2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Laskin
- W. R. Wiley Environmental Molecular Science Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, USA.
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33
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Sobanska S, Falgayrac G, Laureyns J, Brémard C. Chemistry at level of individual aerosol particle using multivariate curve resolution of confocal Raman image. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2006; 64:1102-9. [PMID: 16488185 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2005.11.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2005] [Revised: 11/04/2005] [Accepted: 11/24/2005] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Airborne particles with aerodynamic diameter in the 10-1 microm range have been collected in an industrial/urban zone by impaction and have been investigated by automated confocal Raman microspectrometry. The computer-microcontrolled XY scanning and Z focusing of Raman images provided many pixel Raman spectra which are characteristics of complex mixture at level of individual particle. The large heterogeneity was not resolved by the spatial resolution of the instrument which is limited by the optical diffraction. The severe spectral overlaps generated by heterogeneity were resolved by multivariate curve resolution (MCR) methods. The purity based method (SIMPLISMAX) was used to resolve both luminescence spectra and pure Raman spectra without prior information. The MCR-alternating least square (ALS) was used as a refined method of both spectra and spectral concentrations. The reconstructing Raman images of the respective spectral contribution supply a versatile potential to characterize the chemistry of atmospheric aerosols at the level of the individual particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Sobanska
- Laboratoire de Spectrochimie Infrarouge et Raman, UMR-CNRS 8516, CERLA FR-CNRS 2416, University of Sciences and Technologies of Lille, Bât C5, Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex F-59655, France.
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34
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Falgayrac G, Sobanska S, Laureyns J, Brémard C. Heterogeneous chemistry between PbSO4 and calcite microparticles using Raman microimaging. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2006; 64:1095-101. [PMID: 16524761 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2005.11.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2005] [Revised: 11/30/2005] [Accepted: 11/30/2005] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Currently, the smelting activities of lead and zinc are the loudest sources of local pollution by emission in the troposphere of dust of micrometer size containing PbSO(4). As the particles evolve in the troposphere, their chemical and physical properties - and hence their characteristics such as toxicity - change by accumulation of atmospheric heterogeneous reactions. Calcite (CaCO(3)) represents a large part of the mineral fraction in tropospheric aerosols with aerodynamic diameters less than 10 microm. The calcite particles are expected to react with PbSO(4) particles. In an effort to model the chemical behaviour of PbSO(4) individual particles in the troposphere, we present the in situ Raman imaging results during the course of the reactions in a water droplet of PbSO(4) particles with a calcite microcrystal surface. The computer-microcontrolled XY scanning and Z focusing of confocal Raman imaging combined with multivariate curve resolution (MCR) of Raman images have resolved the severe spectral overlaps of the Raman spectra which are not resolved by the spatial resolution of the instrument ( approximately 1 microm(3)). The results pointed out the identification and the mapping of Pb(3)(CO(3))(2)(OH)(2), PbCO(3) and CaSO(4).2H(2)O (gypsum) on the calcite surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Falgayrac
- Laboratoire de Spectrochimie IR et Raman, UMR-CNRS 8516, CERLA FR-CNRS 2416, Université de Lille I, F-59655 Villeneuve d'Ascq, Cedex, France
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35
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Saul TD, Tolocka MP, Johnston MV. Reactive Uptake of Nitric Acid onto Sodium Chloride Aerosols Across a Wide Range of Relative Humidities. J Phys Chem A 2006; 110:7614-20. [PMID: 16774205 DOI: 10.1021/jp060639a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Reactive uptake coefficients for nitric acid onto size-selected (d(ve) = 102 and 233 nm) sodium chloride aerosols are determined for relative humidities (RH) between 85% and 10%. Both pure sodium chloride and sodium chloride mixed with magnesium chloride (X(Mg/Na) = 0.114, typical of sea salt) are studied. The aerosol is equilibrated with a carrier gas stream at the desired RH and then mixed with nitric acid vapor at a concentration of 60 ppb in a laminar flow tube reactor. At the end of the reactor, the particle composition is determined in real time with a laser ablation single particle mass spectrometer. For relative humidities above the efflorescence relative humidity (ERH), the particles exist as liquid droplets and the uptake coefficient ranges from 0.05 at 85% RH to >0.1 near the ERH. The droplet sizes, relative humidity and composition dependencies, are readily predicted by thermodynamics. For relative humidities below the ERH, the particles are nominally "solid" and uptake depends on the amount of surface adsorbed water (SAW). The addition of magnesium chloride to the particle phase (0.114 mole ratio of magnesium to sodium) facilitates uptake by increasing the amount of SAW. In the presence of magnesium chloride, the uptake coefficient remains high (>0.1) down to 10% RH, suggesting that the displacement of chloride by nitrate in fine sea salt particles is efficient over the entire range of conditions in the ambient marine environment. In the marine boundary layer, displacement of chloride by nitrate in fine sea salt particles should be nearly complete within a few hours (faster in polluted areas)-a time scale much shorter than the particle residence time in the atmosphere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas D Saul
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, 19716, USA
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Batonneau Y, Sobanska S, Laureyns J, Bremard C. Confocal microprobe Raman imaging of urban tropospheric aerosol particles. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2006; 40:1300-6. [PMID: 16572789 DOI: 10.1021/es051294x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Particulate matter with aerodynamic diameters of < 1, 1-2.5, and 2.5-10 microm were collected during two seasons in two urban zones situated northeast and southwest, respectively, of a lead/zinc smelter located in a former mining region of northern France. We demonstrate the effectiveness of the combined use of computer-controlled Raman mapping and multivariate curve resolution (MCR) of the Raman images to determine heterogeneous chemistry at the level of aerosol particle. The resulting molecular images of major species were found to be in accurate agreement with elemental images obtained by WDS X-ray-mapping. Environmental SEM was very useful to localize spare metal-rich particles before Raman mapping. Some spare particles containing pyromorphite (Pb5(PO4)3OH) and franklinite (ZnxFe3-xO4) mixed with mineral dust were detected at the northeast (NE) sampling site, when the wind was blowing from the west (W) sector. These particles were probably suspended in the troposphere by the action of wind or by mechanical disturbance of polluted top soils. The most abundantly encountered particles in the 10-2.5 and 2.5-1 microm fractions were found to be aggregates of NaCl, CaCO3, CaSO4 x 2H2O, CaMg(CO3)2, SiO2, feldspar, clay minerals, alpha-Fe2O3, NaNO3, and Ca(NO3)2 x 4H20. Black carbon and (NH4)2SO4 particles were observed predominantly in the finest fraction. It was not rare to detect Pb and Zn-rich particles in the 10-2.5 and 2.5-1 microm fractions collected at the southwest (SW) sampling site, when the wind was blowing from the NE sector. Most of these mixed particles probably result from the aggregation between PbSO4, PbO x PbSO4, and ZnS particles emitted by the smelters and hydroscopic mineral dust during transport in the troposphere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yann Batonneau
- Laboratoire de Catalyse en Chimie Organique UMR-CNRS 6503, University of Poitiers, 40, Avenue du Recteur Pineau, F-86022 Poitiers Cedex, France
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Heterogeneous Sulfate Formation on Dust Surface and Its Dependence on Mineralogy: Balloon-Borne Observations from Balloon-Borne Measurements in The Surface Atmosphere of Beijing, China. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1007/s11267-005-0730-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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38
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Wang F, Zhang YH, Li SH, Wang LY, Zhao LJ. A Strategy for Single Supersaturated Droplet Analysis: Confocal Raman Investigations on the Complicated Hygroscopic Properties of Individual MgSO4 Droplets on the Quartz Substrate. Anal Chem 2005; 77:7148-55. [PMID: 16285660 DOI: 10.1021/ac050938g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We report a new strategy for single supersaturated droplet analysis, i.e., the complicated hygroscopic properties of MgSO4 aerosols under supersaturated state were studied through the micro-Raman observation on an individual MgSO4 droplet deposited on a quartz substrate in a relative-humidity-controlled chamber. Upon reduction of the ambient relative humidity (RH), MgSO4 droplets with tiny volume lost water but did not effloresce. Thus, a detailed spectral evolution of the symmetric stretching vibration band (v1-SO4(2-)) from free ions (at approximately 983 cm(-1)) to monodentate (approximately 995 cm(-1)) and then to bidentate contact ion pairs (CIPs) or more complex chain-structural compositions (approximately 1021 cm(-1)) was observed with the high signal-to-noise (S/N) confocal Raman spectra of the droplet with a diameter of approximately 80 microns. Such a transition process could be well-described by the changes of relative intensity at 983, 995, and 1021 cm(-1). Four steps, i.e., concentrated step, monodentate CIPs step, bidentate CIPs step, and gel step, were roughly observed in the dehumidifying-humidifying cycle according to the intensity ratios of I995/I983 and I1021/I983. Even though the area ratio of the O-H stretching band of water molecules to the v1-SO4(2-) band seemed reversible in the dehumidifying and humidifying processes, the intensity ratios of I995/I983 and I1021/I983 showed a hysteresis in the decomposition of CIPs in the humidifying process with the RH < 40%. The O-H stretching envelope of the MgSO4 droplet was also observed to be sensitive to the structural changes of the hydrogen bonding of water molecules in the four steps. The intensity ratio of Raman scattering for the components with strong hydrogen bonds to those with weak ones, i.e., I3224/I3431, was used to understand the effects of CIPs on the water structures of the first hydration layer of Mg2+. Good consistency on the hysteresis in the humidifying process was also observed from the ratio of I3224/I3431 changing with RH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Wang
- Institute for Chemical Physics, Beijing Institute of Technology, China
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Choël M, Deboudt K, Osán J, Flament P, Van Grieken R. Quantitative Determination of Low-Z Elements in Single Atmospheric Particles on Boron Substrates by Automated Scanning Electron Microscopy−Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2005; 77:5686-92. [PMID: 16131082 DOI: 10.1021/ac050739x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Atmospheric aerosols consist of a complex heterogeneous mixture of particles. Single-particle analysis techniques are known to provide unique information on the size-resolved chemical composition of aerosols. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) combined with a thin-window energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) detector enables the morphological and elemental analysis of single particles down to 0.1 microm with a detection limit of 1-10 wt %, low-Z elements included. To obtain data statistically representative of the air masses sampled, a computer-controlled procedure can be implemented in order to run hundreds of single-particle analyses (typically 1000-2000) automatically in a relatively short period of time (generally 4-8 h, depending on the setup and on the particle loading). However, automated particle analysis by SEM-EDX raises two practical challenges: the accuracy of the particle recognition and the reliability of the quantitative analysis, especially for micrometer-sized particles with low atomic number contents. Since low-Z analysis is hampered by the use of traditional polycarbonate membranes, an alternate choice of substrate is a prerequisite. In this work, boron is being studied as a promising material for particle microanalysis. As EDX is generally said to probe a volume of approximately 1 microm3, geometry effects arise from the finite size of microparticles. These particle geometry effects must be corrected by means of a robust concentration calculation procedure. Conventional quantitative methods developed for bulk samples generate elemental concentrations considerably in error when applied to microparticles. A new methodology for particle microanalysis, combining the use of boron as the substrate material and a reverse Monte Carlo quantitative program, was tested on standard particles ranging from 0.25 to 10 microm. We demonstrate that the quantitative determination of low-Z elements in microparticles is achievable and that highly accurate results can be obtained using the automatic data processing described here compared to conventional methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Choël
- Laboratoire Ecosystèmes Littoraux et Côtiers, UMR CNRS 8013 ELICO, Université du Littoral Côte d'Opale, 32 avenue Foch, F-62930 Wimereux, France
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40
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Johnson ER, Sciegienka J, Carlos-Cuellar S, Grassian VH. Heterogeneous Uptake of Gaseous Nitric Acid on Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) and Calcite (CaCO3) Particles: A Knudsen Cell Study Using Multiple, Single, and Fractional Particle Layers. J Phys Chem A 2005; 109:6901-11. [PMID: 16834047 DOI: 10.1021/jp0516285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In this study, the heterogeneous uptake of gaseous nitric acid on dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2, and calcite, CaCO3, particles under dry conditions at 296 K was investigated. A Knudsen cell reactor was used to measure heterogeneous uptake coefficients for these reactions. Several different experiments were performed including those on many, single, and fractional layers of particles. For experiments using multiple particle layers, the Knudsen cell data were modeled to take into account gas diffusion into the underlying layers of the sample. From this analysis, initial heterogeneous uptake coefficients, gamma(o,t), were determined to be (5 +/- 2) x 10(-4) and (2 +/- 1) x 10(-3), for dolomite and calcite, respectively, at a nitric acid concentration of 6.5 x 10(10) molecules cm(-3). For experiments that employed single or fractional particle layers, the initial heterogeneous uptake coefficient was analyzed using a recent method described in the literature. Values of the initial heterogeneous uptake coefficient using this analysis were in agreement with the above analysis and determined to be (7 +/- 4) x 10(-4) and (2 +/- 0.4) x 10(-3) for CaMg(CO3)2 and CaCO3, respectively. In addition, these results are compared to previous literature values.
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Sullivan RC, Prather KA. Recent Advances in Our Understanding of Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Made Possible by On-Line Aerosol Analysis Instrumentation. Anal Chem 2005; 77:3861-85. [PMID: 15952760 DOI: 10.1021/ac050716i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan C Sullivan
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry and Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0314, USA
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Ro CU, Hwang H, Kim H, Chun Y, Van Grieken R. Single-particle characterization of four "Asian Dust" samples collected in Korea, using low-Z particle electron probe X-ray microanalysis. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2005; 39:1409-1419. [PMID: 15819192 DOI: 10.1021/es049772b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A single-particle analytical technique, named low-Z particle electron probe X-ray microanalysis (low-Z particle EPMA), employing an ultrathin window X-ray detector and enabling the quantitative determination of even low-Z elements such as C, N, and O, is applied to characterize "Asian Dust" samples, collected in ChunCheon, Korea, during four Asian Dust storm events on March 7, 2000, April 7, 2000, March 22, 2001, and May 17, 2001. In this study, it is demonstrated that single-particle analysis using the low-Z particle EPMA provides detailed information on various types of chemical species in the samples. The most abundantly encountered particles, both in coarse and fine fractions, are aluminosilicates. The relative abundances of those particles on the basis of their size are different between the four Asian Dust samples. The sample collected on March 7, 2000 did not experience any chemical modification during its transport because the sample does not contain particles of chemical species that result from atmospheric reactions. The sample collected on April 7, 2000 contains both genuine and reacted sea-salt particles. The genuine sea-salts are in the form of a mixture of NaCl and MgCl2 entrained during their passage over the Yellow Sea. The reacted sea-salts particles are encountered very much in fine fraction. The sample collected on March 22, 2001 shows somewhat significant chemical modification both for CaCO3 and sea-salts particles. For this sample, a significant number of reacted CaCO3 and sea-salt particles, such as those containing nitrate and/or sulfate, are encountered, implying that CaCO3 and sea-salts particles have reacted with sulfur or nitrogen oxide species during their long-range transport. The sample collected on May 17, 2001 experienced the most extensive chemical modification during its transport. In addition to the observation of the extensively reacted CaCO3 and sea-salt particles, reacted K2CO3 particles are also extensively encountered in this sample, which implies that K2CO3 species should be regarded as an additional important chemical species in the study of the chemical modification of Asian Dust particles during long-range transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chul-Un Ro
- Department of Chemistry, Inha University, Incheon, 402-751, Korea.
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Laskin A. Heterogeneous chemistry of individual mineral dust particles with nitric acid: A combined CCSEM/EDX, ESEM, and ICP-MS study. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1029/2004jd005206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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44
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Hwang H, Ro CU. Single-particle characterization of four aerosol samples collected in ChunCheon, Korea, during Asian dust storm events in 2002. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1029/2005jd006050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Laskin A, Iedema MJ, Ichkovich A, Graber ER, Taraniuk I, Rudich Y. Direct observation of completely processed calcium carbonate dust particles. Faraday Discuss 2005; 130:453-68; discussion 491-517, 519-24. [PMID: 16161798 DOI: 10.1039/b417366j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This study presents, for the first time, field evidence of complete, irreversible processing of solid calcium carbonate (calcite)-containing particles and quantitative formation of liquid calcium nitrate particles apparently as a result of heterogeneous reaction of calcium carbonate-containing mineral dust particles with gaseous nitric acid. Formation of nitrates from individual calcite and sea salt particles was followed as a function of time in aerosol samples collected at Shoresh, Israel. Morphology and compositional changes of individual particles were observed using conventional scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive analysis of X-rays (SEM/EDX) and computer controlled SEM/EDX. Environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) was utilized to determine and demonstrate the hygroscopic behavior of calcium nitrate particles found in some of the samples. Calcium nitrate particles are exceptionally hygroscopic and deliquesce even at very low relative humidity (RH) of 9-11% which is lower than typical atmospheric environments. Transformation of non-hygroscopic dry mineral dust particles into hygroscopic wet aerosol may have substantial impacts on light scattering properties, the ability to modify clouds and heterogeneous chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Laskin
- William R. Wiley Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, P.O. Box 999, MSIN K8-88, Richland, WA, 99352, USA.
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46
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Kelly JT. Thermodynamics of carbonates and hydrates related to heterogeneous reactions involving mineral aerosol. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1029/2004jd005583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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