Preparation, Characterization, and Application of an Enzyme-Immobilized Magnetic Microreactor for Flow Injection Analysis

Microfluidic Immobilized Enzymatic Reactors for Proteomic Analyses—Recent Developments and Trends (2017–2021)

Given the strong interdisciplinary nature of microfluidic immobilized enzyme reactor (μ-IMER) technology, several branches of science contribute to its successful implementation. A combination of physical, chemical knowledge and engineering skills is often required. The development and application of μ-IMERs in the proteomic community are experiencing increasing importance due to their attractive features of enzyme reusability, shorter digestion times, the ability to handle minute volumes of sample and the prospect of on-line integration into analytical workflows. The aim of this review is to give an account of the current (2017–2021) trends regarding the preparation of microdevices, immobilization strategies, and IMER configurations. The different aspects of microfabrication (designs, fabrication technologies and detectors) and enzyme immobilization (empty and packed channels, and monolithic supports) are surveyed focusing on μ-IMERs developed for proteomic analysis. Based on the advantages and limitations of the published approaches and the different applications, a probable perspective is given.

A Compartmented Flow Microreactor System for Automated Optimization of Bioprocesses Applying Immobilized Enzymes

In the course of their development, industrial biocatalysis processes have to be optimized in small-scale, e. g., within microfluidic bioreactors. Recently, we introduced a novel microfluidic reactor device, which can handle defined reaction compartments of up to 250 μL in combination with magnetic micro carriers. By transferring the magnetic carriers between subsequent compartments of differing compositions, small scale synthesis, and bioanalytical assays can be conducted. In the current work, this device is modified and extended to broaden its application range to the screening and optimization of bioprocesses applying immobilized enzymes. Besides scaling the maximum compartment volume up to 3 mL, a temperature control module, as well as a focused infrared spot were integrated. By adjusting the pump rate, compartment volumes can be accurately dosed with an error <5% and adjusted to the requested temperature within less than a minute. For demonstration of bioprocess parameter optimization within such compartments, the influence of pH, temperature, substrate concentration, and enzyme carrier loading was automatically screened for the case of transferring UDP-Gal onto N-acetylglucosamine linked to a tert-butyloxycarbonyl protected amino group using immobilized β1,4-galactosyltransferase-1. In addition, multiple recycling of the enzyme carriers and the use of increased compartment volumes also allows the simple production of preparative amounts of reaction products.

μMORE: A microfluidic magnetic oscillation reactor for accelerated parameter optimization in biocatalysis

Enzymatic parameter determination is an essential step in biocatalytic process development. Therefore higher throughput in miniaturized devices is urgently needed. An ideal microfluidic device should combine easy immobilization and retention of a minimal amount of biocatalyst with a well-mixed reaction volume. Together, all criteria are hardly met by current tools. Here we describe a microfluidic reactor (μMORE) which employs magnetic particles for both enzyme immobilization and efficient mixing using two permanent magnets placed in rotating cylinders next to the a glass chip reactor. The chip geometry and agitation speed was optimized by investigation of the mixing and retention characteristics using simulation and dye distribution analysis. Subsequently, the μMORE was successfully applied to determine critical biocatalytic process parameters in a parallelized manner for the carboligation of benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde to (S)-2-hydroxy-1-phenylpropan-1-one with less than 5μg of benzoylformate decarboxylase from Pseudomonas putida immobilized on magnetic beads. Here, one run of the device in six parallelized glass reactors took only 2-3h for an immobilized enzyme with very low activity (∼2U/mg). The optimized parameter set was finally tested in a 10mL enzyme membrane reactor, demonstrating that the μMORE provides a solid data base for biocatalytic process optimization.

Model-Based Design of Biochemical Microreactors

Mathematical modeling of biochemical pathways is an important resource in Synthetic Biology, as the predictive power of simulating synthetic pathways represents an important step in the design of synthetic metabolons. In this paper, we are concerned with the mathematical modeling, simulation, and optimization of metabolic processes in biochemical microreactors able to carry out enzymatic reactions and to exchange metabolites with their surrounding medium. The results of the reported modeling approach are incorporated in the design of the first microreactor prototypes that are under construction. These microreactors consist of compartments separated by membranes carrying specific transporters for the input of substrates and export of products. Inside the compartments of the reactor multienzyme complexes assembled on nano-beads by peptide adapters are used to carry out metabolic reactions. The spatially resolved mathematical model describing the ongoing processes consists of a system of diffusion equations together with boundary and initial conditions. The boundary conditions model the exchange of metabolites with the neighboring compartments and the reactions at the surface of the nano-beads carrying the multienzyme complexes. Efficient and accurate approaches for numerical simulation of the mathematical model and for optimal design of the microreactor are developed. As a proof-of-concept scenario, a synthetic pathway for the conversion of sucrose to glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) was chosen. In this context, the mathematical model is employed to compute the spatio-temporal distributions of the metabolite concentrations, as well as application relevant quantities like the outflow rate of G6P. These computations are performed for different scenarios, where the number of beads as well as their loading capacity are varied. The computed metabolite distributions show spatial patterns, which differ for different experimental arrangements. Furthermore, the total output of G6P increases for scenarios where microcompartimentation of enzymes occurs. These results show that spatially resolved models are needed in the description of the conversion processes. Finally, the enzyme stoichiometry on the nano-beads is determined, which maximizes the production of glucose-6-phosphate.

A. Enzymatic microreactors in biocatalysis: history, features, and future perspectives

Microfluidic reaction devices are a very promising technology for chemical and biochemical processes. In microreactors, the micro dimensions, coupled with a high surface area/volume ratio, permit rapid heat exchange and mass transfer, resulting in higher reaction yields and reaction rates than in conventional reactors. Moreover, the lower energy consumption and easier separation of products permit these systems to have a lower environmental impact compared to macroscale, conventional reactors. Due to these benefits, the use of microreactors is increasing in the biocatalysis field, both by using enzymes in solution and their immobilized counterparts. Following an introduction to the most common applications of microreactors in chemical processes, a broad overview will be given of the latest applications in biocatalytic processes performed in microreactors with free or immobilized enzymes. In particular, attention is given to the nature of the materials used as a support for the enzymes and the strategies employed for their immobilization. Mathematical and engineering aspects concerning fluid dynamics in microreactors were also taken into account as fundamental factors for the optimization of these systems.

Synthesis of environmentally friendly highly dispersed magnetite nanoparticles based on rosin cationic surfactants as thin film coatings of steel

This work presents a new method to prepare monodisperse magnetite nanoparticles capping with new cationic surfactants based on rosin. Core/shell type magnetite nanoparticles were synthesized using bis-N-(3-levopimaric maleic acid adduct-2-hydroxy) propyl-triethyl ammonium chloride (LPMQA) as capping agent. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was employed to characterize the nanoparticles chemical structure. Transmittance electron microscopies (TEM) and X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) were used to examine the morphology of the modified magnetite nanoparticles. The magnetite dispersed aqueous acid solution was evaluated as an effective anticorrosion behavior of a hydrophobic surface on steel. The inhibition effect of magnetite nanoparticles on steel corrosion in 1 M HCl solution was investigated using potentiodynamic polarization curves and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Results obtained from both potentiodynamic polarisation and EIS measurements reveal that the magnetite nanoparticle is an effective inhibitor for the corrosion of steel in 1.0 M HCl solution. Polarization data show that magnetite nanoparticles behave as a mixed type inhibitor. The inhibition efficiencies obtained from potentiodynamic polarization and EIS methods are in good agreement.

Design of a prototype flow microreactor for synthetic biology in vitro

As a reference platform for in vitro synthetic biology, we have developed a prototype flow microreactor for enzymatic biosynthesis. We report the design, implementation, and computer-aided optimisation of a three-step model pathway within a microfluidic reactor. A packed bed format was shown to be optimal for enzyme compartmentalisation after experimental evaluation of several approaches. The specific substrate conversion efficiency could significantly be improved by an optimised parameter set obtained by computational modelling. Our microreactor design provides a platform to explore new in vitro synthetic biology solutions for industrial biosynthesis.

Rod-Shaped Magnetite Nano/Microparticles Synthesis at Ambient Temperature

Here, we reported room temperature synthesis of Fe3O4rod-shaped nano/microparticles by chemical reduction method from FeCl3precursor and NaBH4as the reducing agent in the presence of the pyrrole as a capping agent. The magnetic Fe3O4particles were characterized by several methods, such as SEM, XRD, FTIR, and TGA. The average aspect ratio of Fe3O4rod-shaped particles was ~2.8. These particles were redispersed in deionised water to form a colloidal solution and showed magnetic properties. This economical synthesis route is scalable, and Fe3O4particles can be exploited for various applications such as MRI contrast enhancement, biodiseperations, Ni-Fe batteries, and as a catalyst.

A replaceable dual-enzyme capillary microreactor using magnetic beads and its application for simultaneous detection of acetaldehyde and pyruvate

A novel replaceable dual-enzyme capillary microreactor was developed and evaluated using magnetic fields to immobilize the alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH)- and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)-coated magnetic beads at desired positions in the capillary. The dual-enzyme assay was achieved by measuring the two consumption peaks of the coenzyme β-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), which were related to the ADH reaction and LDH reaction. The dual-enzyme capillary microreactor was constructed using magnetic beads without any modification of the inner surface of the capillary, and showed great stability and reproducibility. The electrophoretic resolution for different analytes can be easily controlled by altering the relative distance of different enzyme-coated magnetic beads. The apparent K(m) values for acetaldehyde with ADH-catalyzed reaction and for pyruvate with LDH-catalyzed reaction were determined. The detection limits for acetaldehyde and pyruvate determination are 0.01 and 0.016 mM (S/N = 3), respectively. The proposed method was successfully applied to simultaneously determine the acetaldehyde and pyruvate contents in beer samples. The results indicated that combing magnetic beads with CE is of great value to perform replaceable and controllable multienzyme capillary microreactor for investigation of a series of enzyme reactions and determination of multisubstrates.

Enzyme reactions in nanoporous, picoliter volume containers

Advancements in nanoscale fabrication allow creation of small-volume reaction containers that can facilitate the screening and characterization of enzymes. A porous, ∼19 pL volume vessel has been used in this work to carry out enzyme reactions under varying substrate concentrations. Assessment of small-molecule and green fluorescent protein diffusion from the vessels indicates that pore sizes on the order of 10 nm can be obtained, allowing capture of proteins and diffusive exchange of small molecules. Glucose oxidase and horseradish peroxidase can be contained in these structures and diffusively fed with a solution containing glucose and the fluorogenic substrate amplex red through the engineered nanoscale pore structure. Fluorescent microscopy was used to monitor the reaction, which was carried out under microfluidic control. Kinetic characteristics of the enzyme (K(m) and V(max)) were evaluated and compared with results from conventional scale reactions. These picoliter, nanoporous containers can facilitate quick determination of enzyme kinetics in microfluidic systems without the requirement of surface tethering and can be used for applications in drug discovery, clinical diagnostics, and high-throughput screening.

Enzyme-immobilized microfluidic process reactors

Microreaction technology, which is an interdisciplinary science and engineering area, has been the focus of different fields of research in the past few years. Several microreactors have been developed. Enzymes are a type of catalyst, which are useful in the production of substance in an environmentally friendly way, and they also have high potential for analytical applications. However, not many enzymatic processes have been commercialized, because of problems in stability of the enzymes, cost, and efficiency of the reactions. Thus, there have been demands for innovation in process engineering, particularly for enzymatic reactions, and microreaction devices represent important tools for the development of enzyme processes. In this review, we summarize the recent advances of microchannel reaction technologies especially for enzyme immobilized microreactors. We discuss the manufacturing process of microreaction devices and the advantages of microreactors compared to conventional reaction devices. Fundamental techniques for enzyme immobilized microreactors and important applications of this multidisciplinary technology are also included in our topics.

Enzyme-functionalized polymer brush films on the inner wall of silicon-glass microreactors with tunable biocatalytic activity

The lipase from Candida Rugosa was immobilized to a poly(methacrylic acid) polymer brush layer, grown on the inner wall of silicon-glass microreactors. The hydrolysis of 4-nitrophenyl acetate was used as a model reaction to study the activity of this biocatalytic system. The amount of bound lipase could be tuned by changing the polymerization time of the brush formation. The Michaelis-Menten constants and V(max) values, determined for immobilized and free lipase, are similar, demonstrating that the lipase's substrate affinity and its activity remain unchanged upon immobilization to the microchannel wall.

Fabrication of a microfluidic enzyme reactor utilizing magnetic beads

An enzyme-catalyzed microfluidic assay using magnetic micro-beads is described. Here, diaphorase (DI) (E.C. 1.6.99) is covalently attached to the magnetic micro-beads (2.7 mum) and integrated into a short section of a microchip fabricated from PDMS. DI converts non-fluorescent resazurin to fluorescent resorufin in the presence of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADH). In this work, an embedded magnet holds the micro-beads in place within the microchannel while a solution of resazurin and NADH in buffer is flowed through the beads. Incorporation of the micro-beads into the microchannel requires only a few minutes and offers well-defined spatial resolution and reproducibility. At a flow rate of 41.2 microL/h, a stable state for the enzyme reaction in the microfluidic format was achieved within 50 s. The maximum conversion of the reaction was obtained at a concentration of 1.25 mM NADH. The reaction yield is affected by ZnCl(2) and at concentrations in excess of 90.0 mM, the activity of DI was almost double without ZnCl(2). At 5.2 mM potassium chloride, the activity of DI reached its maximum value. Overall, the conversion of resazurin in microfluidic format was more than twice than that in a batch assay.

Rapid and dynamic intracellular patterning of cell-internalized magnetic fluorescent nanoparticles

Conjugated magnetic nanoparticles have recently demonstrated potential in activating unique and specific activity within cells. Leveraging microfabrication, we have developed a technique of localizing nanoparticles to specific, subcellular locations by a micropatterned ferromagnetic substrate. Controlled patterns of nanoparticles were assembled and dynamically controlled with submicrometer precision within live cells. We anticipate that the technique will be useful as a compact, simple method of generating localizable, subcellular chemical and mechanical signals, compatible with standard microscopy.

Magnetic particle-based hybrid platforms for bioanalytical sensors

Biomagnetic nano and microparticles platforms have attracted considerable interest in the field of biological sensors due to their interesting physico-chemical properties, high specific surface area, good mechanical stability and opportunities for generating magneto-switchable devices. This review discusses recent advances in the development and characterization of active biomagnetic nanoassemblies, their interaction with biological molecules and their use in bioanalytical sensors.

Intracellular patterning of internalized magnetic fluorescent nanoparticles

We have designed, simulated, and fabricated micro-magnetic substrates for the reversible self-assembly of cell-internalized magnetic fluorescent nanoparticles according to lithographically defined patterns within live cells. Magnetic nanoparticles have recently demonstrated potential in activating highly specific activity within single cells. Using microfabrication, we have developed a technique of localizing both particles and large magnetic fields to highly specific, engineered, sub-cellular locations with various modes of operation. The substrates were simulated in 3 dimensions with ANSYS FEA, and consist of micro-patterned, electroplated permalloy elements planarized with SU-8. Various modes of magnet-orientation dependent patterns of nanoparticles were generated and verified within live cells, with their precise location verified under separate blue and green (absorption and emission wavelengths of the particles) filters using a fluorescent microscope. Results correspond well with modeled positions and response time. We anticipate using the tool as a compact, simple method of generating highly localized, easily distinguishable, sub-cellular chemical and mechanical signals that is compatible with standard biological fluorescence setups.

Label-free sequence-specific DNA sensing using copper-enhanced anodic stripping of purine bases at boron-doped diamond electrodes

Stripping voltammetric determination of purine bases in the presence of copper ions at mercury, amalgam, or carbon-based electrodes has recently been utilized in analysis of DNA or synthetic oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs). Here we report on copper-enhanced label-free anodic stripping detection of guanine and adenine bases in acid-hydrolyzed DNA at anodically oxidized boron-doped diamond electrode (AO-BDDE). The AO-BDDE was successfully applied in a three-electrode microcell in which an approximately 50 microL drop of the analyte solution can be efficiently stirred during the accumulation step by streaming of an inert gas. Accelerated mass transport due to the solution motion in the presence of copper resulted in enhancement of the guanine oxidation signal by about 2 orders of magnitude (compared to accumulation of the analyte from still solution not containing copper), allowing an easy detection of approximately 25 fmol of the ODNs. The proposed technique is shown to be suitable for a determination of purine (particularly guanine) content in DNA samples. Applications of the technique in magnetic bead-based DNA assays (such as hybridization with DNA sequences exhibiting asymmetrical distribution of purine/pyrimidine nucleotides between the complementary strands or monitoring of amplification of specific DNA fragments in a duplex polymerase chain reaction) are demonstrated.

Glucose microfluidic biosensors based on immobilizing glucose oxidase in poly(dimethylsiloxane) electrophoretic microchips

Here we reported a novel microfluidic biosensor with an on-column immobilized enzyme microreactor. The fabrication approach of this biosensor is simple and the enzyme microreactors with controlled sizes can be placed at any desired position on the microchip. Taking glucose oxidase (GOx) as an example, electroosmotic flow (EOF) as a driving force and amperometry as a detection method, the performance of biosensors were modulated by changing the length of enzyme reactor from 0.5 cm to 3 cm, and the linear ranges were changed from 0-8.0 mM to 0-30.0 mM with the detection limits from 42 microM to 6.5 microM. The enzyme reactor remained its 65% activity after 23 days storage. It also showed good anti-interference ability and was used to quantify glucose in human serum samples.

Microchannel enzyme reactors and their applications for processing

Microreaction technology is an interdisciplinary field combining science and engineering. It has attracted the attention of researchers from different fields for the past few years, resulting in the development of several microreactors. Enzymes are one of the catalysts used in microreactors: they are useful for substance production in an environmentally friendly way and have high potential for analytical applications. However, few enzymatic processes have been commercialized because of problems with stability and the cost and efficiency of the reactions. Thus, there have been demands for innovation in process engineering, particularly for enzymatic reactions, and microreaction devices can serve as efficient tools for the development of enzyme processes. In this review, we summarize the recent advances of enzyme-immobilized microchannel reactors; fundamental techniques for micro enzyme-reactor design and important applications of this multidisciplinary technology in chemical processing are also included in our topics.

Enzymatic microreactors in chemical analysis and kinetic studies

The fields of application of microreactors are becoming wider every year. A considerable number of papers have been published recently reporting successful application of enzymatic microreactors in chemistry and biochemistry. Most are devices with enzymes immobilized on beads or walls of microfluidic channels, whilst some use dissolved enzymes to run a reaction in the microfluidic system. Apart from model systems, mostly with glucose oxidase, horseradish peroxidase and alkaline phosphatase, the principal fields of application of microreactors are tryptic digestion of proteins and polymerase chain reaction in automated analyses of proteomic and genetic material, respectively. Enzymatic microreactors also facilitate characterization of enzyme activity as a function of substrate concentration, and enable fast screening of new biocatalysts and their substrates. They may constitute key parts of lab-on-a-chip and muTAS, assisting the analysis of biomolecules. This review provides systematic coverage of examples of reports on enzymatic microreactors published recently, as well as relevant older papers.

Simple and Rapid Determination of Hydrogen Peroxide Using Phosphine-based Fluorescent Reagents with Sodium Tungstate Dihydrate

A simple batch method for the fluorometric determination of hydrogen peroxide using phosphine-based fluorescent reagents has been developed. A rapid, mild and selective derivatization reaction was achieved by adding sodium tungstate dihydrate to the reaction mixture of hydrogen peroxide and a phosphine-based fluorescent reagent. When 4-diphenylphosphino-7-methylthio-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole was used as a reagent, the derivatization reaction was completed after 2 min at room temperature. The calibration curve was linear between 12.5 and 500 ng hydrogen peroxide in a 10 microL sample solution. This method is accurate and has potential for on-line applications.