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Santana Santos C, Jaato BN, Sanjuán I, Schuhmann W, Andronescu C. Operando Scanning Electrochemical Probe Microscopy during Electrocatalysis. Chem Rev 2023; 123:4972-5019. [PMID: 36972701 PMCID: PMC10168669 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
Abstract
Scanning electrochemical probe microscopy (SEPM) techniques can disclose the local electrochemical reactivity of interfaces in single-entity and sub-entity studies. Operando SEPM measurements consist of using a SEPM tip to investigate the performance of electrocatalysts, while the reactivity of the interface is simultaneously modulated. This powerful combination can correlate electrochemical activity with changes in surface properties, e.g., topography and structure, as well as provide insight into reaction mechanisms. The focus of this review is to reveal the recent progress in local SEPM measurements of the catalytic activity of a surface toward the reduction and evolution of O2 and H2 and electrochemical conversion of CO2. The capabilities of SEPMs are showcased, and the possibility of coupling other techniques to SEPMs is presented. Emphasis is given to scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM), scanning ion conductance microscopy (SICM), electrochemical scanning tunneling microscopy (EC-STM), and scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Santana Santos
- Analytical Chemistry - Center for Electrochemical Sciences (CES), Faculty of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, D-44780 Bochum, Germany
| | - Bright Nsolebna Jaato
- Technical Chemistry III, Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen Carl-Benz-Straße 199, 47057 Duisburg, Germany
| | - Ignacio Sanjuán
- Technical Chemistry III, Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen Carl-Benz-Straße 199, 47057 Duisburg, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Schuhmann
- Analytical Chemistry - Center for Electrochemical Sciences (CES), Faculty of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, D-44780 Bochum, Germany
| | - Corina Andronescu
- Technical Chemistry III, Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen Carl-Benz-Straße 199, 47057 Duisburg, Germany
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2
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Dang N, Etienne M, Walcarius A, Liu L. Scanning Gel Electrochemical Microscopy (SGECM): Lateral Physical Resolution by Current and Shear Force Feedback. Anal Chem 2020; 92:6415-6422. [PMID: 32233427 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b05538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Scanning gel electrochemical microscopy (SGECM) is a novel technique measuring local electrochemistry based on a gel probe. The gel probe, which is fabricated by electrodeposition of hydrogel on a microdisk electrode, immobilizes the electrolyte, and constitutes a two-electrode system upon contact with the sample. The contact area determines the lateral physical resolution of the measurement, and considering the soft nature of the gel it is essential to be well analyzed. In this work, the lateral physical resolution of SGECM is quantitatively studied from two aspects: (1) marking single sampling points by locally oxidizing Ag to AgCl and measuring their size; (2) line scan over reference samples with periodic topography and composition. The gel probe is approached to the sample by either current or shear force feedback, and the physical resolution of them is compared. For the optimal gel probe based on 25 μm diameter Pt disk electrode of Rg ≈ 2, the lateral physical resolution of SGECM at contact position is ca. 50 μm for current feedback and ca. 63 μm for shear force feedback. More importantly, the lateral physical resolution of SGECM can be flexibly tuned in the range of 14-78 μm by pulling or pressing the gel probe after touching the sample. In general, current feedback is more sensitive to gel-sample contact than shear force feedback. But the latter is more versatile, which is also applicable to nonconductive samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Dang
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour les Matériaux et l'Environnement (LCPME), F-54000 Nancy, France
| | - Mathieu Etienne
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour les Matériaux et l'Environnement (LCPME), F-54000 Nancy, France
| | - Alain Walcarius
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour les Matériaux et l'Environnement (LCPME), F-54000 Nancy, France
| | - Liang Liu
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour les Matériaux et l'Environnement (LCPME), F-54000 Nancy, France
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Tang H, Hao H, Zhu J, Guan X, Qiu B, Li Y. Single Pt–Pd Bimetallic Nanoparticle Electrode: Controllable Fabrication and Unique Electrocatalytic Performance for the Methanol Oxidation Reaction. Chemistry 2019; 25:4935-4940. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201900076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Haoran Tang
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing, College of Chemistry and Materials ScienceAnhui Normal University Wuhu 241000 P.R. China
| | - Huan Hao
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing, College of Chemistry and Materials ScienceAnhui Normal University Wuhu 241000 P.R. China
| | - Jiahui Zhu
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing, College of Chemistry and Materials ScienceAnhui Normal University Wuhu 241000 P.R. China
| | - Xianping Guan
- Key Laboratory of Modern Agricultural Equipment and Technology, Ministry of EducationJiangsu University Zhenjiang 212013 P.R. China
| | - Baijing Qiu
- Key Laboratory of Modern Agricultural Equipment and Technology, Ministry of EducationJiangsu University Zhenjiang 212013 P.R. China
| | - Yongxin Li
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing, College of Chemistry and Materials ScienceAnhui Normal University Wuhu 241000 P.R. China
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Liu L, Etienne M, Walcarius A. Scanning Gel Electrochemical Microscopy for Topography and Electrochemical Imaging. Anal Chem 2018; 90:8889-8895. [PMID: 30003777 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.8b01011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Scanning electrochemical probe techniques have been widely applied for analyzing the local electrochemical activity of surfaces and interfaces. In this work, we develop a new concept of carrying out local electrochemical measurements by localizing both the electrode and the electrolyte. This is achieved through a gel probe, which is prepared by electrodepositing chitosan-gelatin gel on a microdisk electrode. It is positioned in contact with the sample surface by shear force feedback. The preliminary results indicate that the topography of the sample can be mapped by tapping the probe and recording the coordinates at a given normalized shear force signal, while the local electrochemical activity can be retrieved from local measurements with the probe touching the sample surface. The technique is denoted as scanning gel electrochemical microscopy. As compared with existing techniques, it has a major advantage of operating in air with the electrolyte immobilized in gel. This would prevent the spreading and leakage of solution on the sample surface and may lead to field applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Liu
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour les Matériaux et l'Environnement (LCPME) , UMR 7564 , Villers-lès-Nancy 54600 , France
| | - Mathieu Etienne
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour les Matériaux et l'Environnement (LCPME) , UMR 7564 , Villers-lès-Nancy 54600 , France
| | - Alain Walcarius
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour les Matériaux et l'Environnement (LCPME) , UMR 7564 , Villers-lès-Nancy 54600 , France
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5
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Hua H, Liu Y, Guan X, Li Y. DNA nanosensors based on the use of single gold nanowire electrodes and Methylene Blue as an intercalator. Mikrochim Acta 2018; 185:152. [DOI: 10.1007/s00604-018-2703-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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6
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Tip current/positioning close-loop mode of scanning electrochemical microscopy for electrochemical micromachining. Electrochem commun 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2017.07.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Wang D, Xiao X, Xu S, Liu Y, Li Y. Electrochemical aptamer-based nanosensor fabricated on single Au nanowire electrodes for adenosine triphosphate assay. Biosens Bioelectron 2017; 99:431-437. [PMID: 28810234 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2017.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2017] [Revised: 07/30/2017] [Accepted: 08/08/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In this work, single Au nanowire electrodes (AuNWEs) were fabricated by laser-assisted pulling/hydrofluoric acid (HF) etching process, which then were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), electrochemical method and finite-element simulation. The as-prepared single AuNWEs were used to construct electrochemical aptamer-based nanosensors (E-AB nanosensors) based on the formation of Au-S bond that duplex DNA tagged with methylene blue (MB) was modified on the surface of electrode. In the presence of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the MB-labeled aptamer dissociated from the duplex DNA due to the strong specific affinity between aptamer and target, which lead to the reduction of MB electrochemical signals. Moreover, BSA was employed to further passivate electrode surface bonding sites for the stable of the sensor. The as-prepared E-AB nanosensor has been used for ATP assay with excellent sensitivity and selectivity, even in a complex system like cerebrospinal fluid of rat brain. Considering the unique properties of good stability, larger surface area and smaller overall dimensions, this E-AB nanosensor should be an ideal platform for widely sensing applications in living bio-system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongmei Wang
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing, College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, PR China; College of Chemistry and Material Engineering, Chaohu University, Chaohu, Anhui 238000, PR China
| | - Xiaoqing Xiao
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing, College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, PR China
| | - Shen Xu
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing, College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, PR China
| | - Yong Liu
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing, College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, PR China
| | - Yongxin Li
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing, College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, PR China.
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8
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Liu Y, Zhang Y, Hua H, Li Y. Fabrication of single Pt@Au nanowire electrodes for monitoring hydrogen peroxide released from living cells. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c7ra08085a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Single Pt@AuNWEs were fabricated by a Cu UPD/Pt redox replacement technique, and were applied to monitoring H2O2 released from living cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Liu
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science
- Anhui Normal University
- Wuhu
- P. R. China
| | - Yaoyao Zhang
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science
- Anhui Normal University
- Wuhu
- P. R. China
| | - Hongmei Hua
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science
- Anhui Normal University
- Wuhu
- P. R. China
| | - Yongxin Li
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science
- Anhui Normal University
- Wuhu
- P. R. China
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9
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Nanoelectrodes: Applications in electrocatalysis, single-cell analysis and high-resolution electrochemical imaging. Trends Analyt Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2016.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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10
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Dauphin-Ducharme P, Binns WJ, Snowden ME, Shoesmith DW, Mauzeroll J. Determination of the local corrosion rate of magnesium alloys using a shear force mounted scanning microcapillary method. Faraday Discuss 2015; 180:331-45. [DOI: 10.1039/c4fd00276h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The successful development of scanning probe techniques to characterize corrosion in situ using multifunctional probes is intrinsically tied to surface topography signal decoupling from the measured electrochemical fluxes. One viable strategy is the shear force controlled scanning microcapillary method. Using this method, pulled quartz micropipettes with an aperture of 500 nm diameter were used to resolve small and large variations in topography in order to quantify the local corrosion rate of microgalvanically and galvanically corroded Mg alloys. To achieve topography monitoring of corroded surfaces, shear force feedback was employed to position the micropipette at a reproducible working height above the substrate. We present proof of concept measurements over a galvanic couple of a magnesium alloy (AE44) and mild steel along with a microgalvanically corroded ZEK100 Mg alloy, which illustrates the ability of shear force to track small (1.4 μm) and large (700 μm) topographic variations from high aspect ratio features. Furthermore, we demonstrate the robustness of the technique by acquiring topographic data for 4 mm along the magnesium–steel galvanic couple sample and a 250 × 30 μm topography map over the ZEK100 Mg alloy. All topography results were benchmarked using standard optical microscopies (profilometry and confocal laser scanning microscopy).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - W. Jeffrey Binns
- Department of Chemistry and Surface Science Western
- Western University
- London
- Canada
| | | | - David W. Shoesmith
- Department of Chemistry and Surface Science Western
- Western University
- London
- Canada
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11
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Zhang Y, Xu S, Qian Y, Yang X, Li Y. Preparation, electrochemical responses and sensing application of Au disk nanoelectrodes down to 5 nm. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra14777h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Single Au nano-disk nanoelectrodes with the radii down to 5 nm have been prepared, which can be used to measure ferritin molecules in the amount of ∼3900 molecules or 6.1 zmol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaoyao Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science
- Anhui Normal University
- Wuhu 241000
- China
| | - Shen Xu
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science
- Anhui Normal University
- Wuhu 241000
- China
| | - YuanYuan Qian
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science
- Anhui Normal University
- Wuhu 241000
- China
| | - Xiaosong Yang
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science
- Anhui Normal University
- Wuhu 241000
- China
| | - Yongxin Li
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science
- Anhui Normal University
- Wuhu 241000
- China
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12
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O’Connell MA, Wain AJ. Mapping Electroactivity at Individual Catalytic Nanostructures Using High-Resolution Scanning Electrochemical–Scanning Ion Conductance Microcopy. Anal Chem 2014; 86:12100-7. [DOI: 10.1021/ac502946q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrew J. Wain
- National Physical Laboratory, Hampton Road, Teddington TW11 0LW, United Kingdom
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13
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Development of Nano-Disc electrodes for Application as Shear Force Sensitive Electrochemical Probes. Electrochim Acta 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2014.05.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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14
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Kranz C. Recent advancements in nanoelectrodes and nanopipettes used in combined scanning electrochemical microscopy techniques. Analyst 2014; 139:336-52. [DOI: 10.1039/c3an01651j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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15
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Etienne M, Moulin JP, Gourhand S. Accurate control of the electrode shape for high resolution shearforce regulated SECM. Electrochim Acta 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2013.03.096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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16
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Thakar R, Weber AE, Morris CA, Baker LA. Multifunctional carbon nanoelectrodes fabricated by focused ion beam milling. Analyst 2013; 138:5973-82. [PMID: 23942511 DOI: 10.1039/c3an01216f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
We report a strategy for fabrication of sub-micron, multifunctional carbon electrodes and application of these electrodes as probes for scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) and scanning ion conductance microscopy (SICM). The fabrication process utilized chemical vapor deposition of parylene, followed by thermal pyrolysis to form conductive carbon and then further deposition of parylene to form an insulation layer. To achieve well-defined electrode geometries, two methods of electrode exposure were utilized. In the first method, carbon probes were masked in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) to obtain a cone-shaped electrode. In the second method, the electrode area was exposed via milling with a focused ion beam (FIB) to reveal a carbon ring electrode, carbon ring/platinum disk electrode, or carbon ring/nanopore electrode. Carbon electrodes were batch fabricated (~35/batch) through the vapor deposition process and were characterized with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM), and cyclic voltammetry (CV) measurements. Additionally, Raman spectroscopy was utilized to examine the effects of Ga(+) ion implantation, a result of FIB milling. Constant-height, feedback mode SECM was performed with conical carbon electrodes and carbon ring electrodes. We demonstrate the utility of carbon ring/nanopore electrodes with SECM-SICM to simultaneously collect topography, ion current and electrochemical current images. In addition, carbon ring/nanopore electrodes were utilized in substrate generation/tip collection (SG/TC) SECM. In SG/TC SECM, localized delivery of redox molecules affords a higher resolution, than when the redox molecules are present in the bath solution. Multifunctional geometries of carbon electrode probes will find utility in electroanalytical applications, in general, and more specifically with electrochemical microscopy as discussed herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Thakar
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 E. Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA.
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Huang K, Anne A, Bahri MA, Demaille C. Probing individual redox PEGylated gold nanoparticles by electrochemical--atomic force microscopy. ACS NANO 2013; 7:4151-4163. [PMID: 23560497 DOI: 10.1021/nn400527u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical-atomic force microscopy (AFM-SECM) was used to simultaneously probe the physical and electrochemical properties of individual ~20 nm sized gold nanoparticles functionalized by redox-labeled PEG chains. The redox PEGylated nanoparticles were assembled onto a gold electrode surface, forming a random nanoarray, and interrogated in situ by a combined AFM-SECM nanoelectrode probe. We show that, in this so-called mediator-tethered (Mt) mode, AFM-SECM affords the nanometer resolution required for resolving the position of individual nanoparticles and measuring their size, while simultaneously electrochemically directly contacting the redox-PEG chains they bear. The dual measurement of the size and current response of single nanoparticles uniquely allows the statistical distribution in grafting density of PEG on the nanoparticles to be determined and correlated to the nanoparticle diameter. Moreover, because of its high spatial resolution, Mt/AFM-SECM allows "visualizing" simultaneously but independently the PEG corona and the gold core of individual nanoparticles. Beyond demonstrating the achievement of single-nanoparticle resolution using an electrochemical microscopy technique, the results reported here also pave the way toward using Mt/AFM-SECM for imaging nano-objects bearing any kind of suitably redox-labeled (bio)macromolecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Huang
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Moléculaire, UMR 7591 CNRS, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 15 Rue Jean-Antoine de Baïf, F-75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
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Koch JA, Baur MB, Woodall EL, Baur JE. Alternating current scanning electrochemical microscopy with simultaneous fast-scan cyclic voltammetry. Anal Chem 2012; 84:9537-43. [PMID: 23025238 DOI: 10.1021/ac302402p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) is combined with alternating current scanning electrochemical microscopy (AC-SECM) for simultaneous measurements of impedance and faradaic current. Scan rates of 10-1000 V s(-1) were used for voltammetry, while a high-frequency (100 kHz), low-amplitude (10 mV rms) sine wave was added to the voltammetric waveform for the ac measurement. Both a lock-in amplifier and an analog circuit were used to measure the amplitude of the resultant ac signal. The effect of the added sine wave on the voltammetry at a carbon fiber electrode was investigated and found to have negligible effect. The combined FSCV and ac measurements were used to provide simultaneous chemical and topographical information about a substrate using a single carbon fiber probe. The technique is demonstrated in living cell culture, where cellular respiration and topography were simultaneously imaged without the addition of a redox mediator. This approach promises to be useful for the topographical and multidimensional chemical imaging of substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason A Koch
- Department of Chemistry, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois 61790-4160, United States
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Cox JT, Zhang B. Nanoelectrodes: recent advances and new directions. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (PALO ALTO, CALIF.) 2012; 5:253-272. [PMID: 22524228 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anchem-062011-143124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
This article reviews recent work involving the development and application of nanoelectrodes in electrochemistry and related areas. We first discuss common analytical methods for characterizing the size, shape, and quality of nanoelectrodes, including electron microscopy, steady-state cyclic voltammetry, scanning electrochemical microscopy, and surface modification. We then emphasize recent developments in fabrication techniques that have led to structurally well-defined nanoelectrodes. We highlight recent advances in the application of nanoelectrodes in important analytical chemistry areas, such as single-molecule studies, single-nanoparticle electrochemistry, and measurements of neurotransmitters from single neuronal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan T Cox
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700, USA
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21
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Lesch A, Momotenko D, Cortés-Salazar F, Wirth I, Tefashe UM, Meiners F, Vaske B, Girault HH, Wittstock G. Fabrication of soft gold microelectrode arrays as probes for scanning electrochemical microscopy. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2011.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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22
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Etienne M, Layoussifi B, Giornelli T, Jacquet D. SECM-based automate equipped with a shearforce detection for the characterization of large and complex samples. Electrochem commun 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2011.11.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022] Open
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23
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Dudin PV, Snowden ME, Macpherson JV, Unwin PR. Electrochemistry at nanoscale electrodes: individual single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) and SWNT-templated metal nanowires. ACS NANO 2011; 5:10017-10025. [PMID: 22092149 DOI: 10.1021/nn203823f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Individual nanowires (NWs) and native single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) can be readily used as well-defined nanoscale electrodes (NSEs) for voltammetric analysis. Here, the simple photolithography-free fabrication of submillimeter long Au, Pt, and Pd NWs, with sub-100 nm heights, by templated electrodeposition onto ultralong flow-aligned SWNTs is demonstrated. Both individual Au NWs and SWNTs are employed as NSEs for electron-transfer (ET) kinetic quantification, using cyclic voltammetry (CV), in conjunction with a microcapillary-based electrochemical method. A small capillary with internal diameter in the range 30-70 μm, filled with solution containing a redox-active mediator (FcTMA(+) ((trimethylammonium)methylferrocene), Fe(CN)(6)(4-), or hydrazine) is positioned above the NSE, so that the solution meniscus completes an electrochemical cell. A 3D finite-element model, faithfully reproducing the experimental geometry, is used to both analyze the experimental CVs and derive the rate of heterogeneous ET, using Butler-Volmer kinetics. For a 70 nm height Au NW, intrinsic rate constants, k(0), up to ca. 1 cm s(-1) can be resolved. Using the same experimental configuration the electrochemistry of individual SWNTs can also be accessed. For FcTMA(+/2+) electrolysis the simulated ET kinetic parameters yield very fast ET kinetics (k(0) > 2 ± 1 cm s(-1)). Some deviation between the experimental voltammetry and the idealized model is noted, suggesting that double-layer effects may influence ET at the nanoscale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr V Dudin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
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Cornut R, Bhasin A, Lhenry S, Etienne M, Lefrou C. Accurate and Simplified Consideration of the Probe Geometrical Defaults in Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy: Theoretical and Experimental Investigations. Anal Chem 2011; 83:9669-75. [DOI: 10.1021/ac2026018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Renaud Cornut
- Laboratoire d’Electrochimie et de Physico-chimie des Matériaux et des Interfaces (LEPMI), UMR 5279 CNRS-Grenoble-INP-UdS-UJF, 1130 rue de la piscine, B.P. 75, Domaine Universitaire, 38402 Saint Martin d’Hères Cedex, France
| | - Amit Bhasin
- Laboratoire d’Electrochimie et de Physico-chimie des Matériaux et des Interfaces (LEPMI), UMR 5279 CNRS-Grenoble-INP-UdS-UJF, 1130 rue de la piscine, B.P. 75, Domaine Universitaire, 38402 Saint Martin d’Hères Cedex, France
| | - Sébastien Lhenry
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l′Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, CNRS-Institut Jean Barriol-Nancy-Université, 405 rue de Vandœuvre, 54600 Villers-lès-Nancy, France
| | - Mathieu Etienne
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l′Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, CNRS-Institut Jean Barriol-Nancy-Université, 405 rue de Vandœuvre, 54600 Villers-lès-Nancy, France
| | - Christine Lefrou
- Laboratoire d’Electrochimie et de Physico-chimie des Matériaux et des Interfaces (LEPMI), UMR 5279 CNRS-Grenoble-INP-UdS-UJF, 1130 rue de la piscine, B.P. 75, Domaine Universitaire, 38402 Saint Martin d’Hères Cedex, France
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25
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Zhao X, Diakowski PM, Ding Z. Deconvoluting Topography and Spatial Physiological Activity of Live Macrophage Cells by Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy in Constant-Distance Mode. Anal Chem 2010; 82:8371-3. [DOI: 10.1021/ac101524v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaocui Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada N6A 5B7
| | - Piotr M. Diakowski
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada N6A 5B7
| | - Zhifeng Ding
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada N6A 5B7
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26
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Wang L, Kranz C, Mizaikoff B. Monitoring scanning electrochemical microscopy approach curves with mid-infrared spectroscopy: toward a novel current-independent positioning mode. Anal Chem 2010; 82:3132-8. [PMID: 20329757 DOI: 10.1021/ac902781h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Single-bounce attenuated total reflection infrared spectroscopy in the 3-20 mum range (mid-infrared, MIR) has been combined with scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) for in situ spectroscopic detection of electrochemically induced localized surface modifications using an ultramicroelectrode (UME). In this study, a novel current-independent approach for positioning the UME in aqueous electrolyte solution is presented using either changes of infrared (IR) absorption intensity associated with borosilicate glass (BSG), which is used as shielding material of the UME wire, or by monitoring IR changes of the water spectrum within the penetration depth of the evanescent field due to displacement of water molecules in the volume between the sample surface and the UME within the evanescent field. The experimental results show that the UME penetrates into the exponentially decaying evanescent field in close vicinity (a few micrometer) to the attenuated total reflection (ATR) crystal surface. Hence, the resulting intensity changes of the IR absorption spectra for borosilicate glass (increase) and for water (decrease) can be used to determine the position of the UME relative to the ATR crystal surface independent of the current measured at the UME.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liqun Wang
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
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27
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Schulte A, Nebel M, Schuhmann W. Scanning electrochemical microscopy in neuroscience. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (PALO ALTO, CALIF.) 2010; 3:299-318. [PMID: 20636044 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.anchem.111808.073651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
This article reviews recent work involving the application of scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) to the study of individual cultured living cells, with an emphasis on topographical and functional imaging of neuronal and secretory cells of the nervous and endocrine system. The basic principles of biological SECM and associated negative amperometric-feedback and generator/collector-mode SECM imaging are discussed, and successful use of the methodology for screening soft and fragile membranous objects is outlined. The drawbacks of the constant-height mode of probe movement and the benefits of the constant-distance mode of SECM operation are described. Finally, representative examples of constant-height and constant-distance mode SECM on a variety of live cells are highlighted to demonstrate the current status of single-cell SECM in general and of SECM in neuroscience in particular.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Schulte
- Institute of Science, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand.
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28
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Anne A, Cambril E, Chovin A, Demaille C, Goyer C. Electrochemical atomic force microscopy using a tip-attached redox mediator for topographic and functional imaging of nanosystems. ACS NANO 2009; 3:2927-2940. [PMID: 19769340 DOI: 10.1021/nn9009054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
We describe the development of a new type of high-resolution atomic force electrochemical microscopy (AFM-SECM), labeled Tarm (for tip-attached redox mediator)/AFM-SECM, where the redox mediator, a ferrocene (Fc), is tethered to the AFM-SECM probe via nanometer long, flexible polyethylene glycol (PEG) chains. It is demonstrated that the tip-attached ferrocene-labeled PEG chains effectively shuttle electrons between the tip and substrate, thus acting as molecular sensors probing the local electrochemical reactivity of a planar substrate. Moreover the Fc-PEGylated AFM-SECM probes can be used for tapping mode imaging, allowing simultaneous recording of electrochemical feedback current and of topography, with a vertical and a lateral resolution in the nanometer range. By imaging the naturally nanostructured surface of HOPG, we demonstrate that Tarm/AFM-SECM microscopy can be used to probe the reactivity of nanometer-sized active sites on surfaces. This new type of SECM microscopy, being, by design, free of the diffusional constraints of classical SECM, is expected to, in principle, enable functional imaging of redox nanosystems such as individual redox enzyme molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnès Anne
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Moleculaire, Unite Mixte de Recherche Universite, CNRS No. 7591, Universite Paris Diderot, Paris 7, 15 rue Jean-Antoine de Baif, 75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
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29
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Tseng YT, Yang CS, Tseng FG. A perfusion-based micro opto-fluidic system (PMOFS) for continuously in-situ immune sensing. LAB ON A CHIP 2009; 9:2673-2682. [PMID: 19704983 DOI: 10.1039/b823449c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
This paper proposes a novel perfusion-based micro opto-fluidic system (PMOFS) as a reusable immunosensor for in-situ and continuous protein detection. The PMOFS includes a fiber optic interferometry (FOI) sensor housed in a micro-opto-fluidic chip covered with a microdialysis membrane. It features a surface regeneration mechanism for continuous detection. Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) labeled anti-rabbit IgG were used to enhance the immune conjugation signal by the elongated optical path from GNPs conjugation. Surface regeneration of the sensor was achieved through local pH level manipulation by means of a photoactive molecule, o-Nitrobenzaldehyde (o-NBA), which triggered the elution of immune complexes. Experimental results showed that the pH level of the o-NBA solution can be reduced from 7 to 3.5 within 20 seconds under UV irradiation, sufficient for an effective elution process. The o-NBA molecules, contained within poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEG) complexes, were trapped within the sensing compartment by the microdialysis membrane and would not leak into the outside environment. The pH variation was also limited in the neighborhood of the sensor surface, resulting in a self-contained sensing system. In-situ immune detection and surface regeneration of the sensing probe has been successfully carried out for two identical cycles by the same sensing probe, and the cycle time can be less than 8 minutes, which is so far the fastest method for continuous monitoring on protein/peptide molecules. In addition, the interference fringe shift of the sensor is linearly related to the concentration of anti-cytochrome C antibody solution and the detection limit approaches 10 ng/ml.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan-Tai Tseng
- Institute of NanoEngineering and MicroSystems (NEMS), National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, 300
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30
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Anne A, Demaille C, Goyer C. Electrochemical atomic-force microscopy using a tip-attached redox mediator. Proof-of-concept and perspectives for functional probing of nanosystems. ACS NANO 2009; 3:819-827. [PMID: 19281224 DOI: 10.1021/nn8007788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents the first steps toward the development of a new type of high-resolution AFM-SECM microscopy which relies on the use of tip-attached redox-labeled polymer chains as mediators to probe the local electrochemical reactivity of a planar substrate at the nanoscale. Submicrometer-sized combined gold AFM-SECM probes were functionalized by linear, nanometer-sized, flexible, PEG3400 chains bearing a ferrocene (Fc) redox label at their free end. Analysis of the force and current approach curves recorded when such Fc-PEGylated probes (tips) were approached to a bare gold substrate allowed the presence of the Fc-PEG chains at the very tip end of the combined probes to be specifically demonstrated. It also allowed the chain coverage, configuration, and dynamics to be determined. When the Fc-PEGylated probe is positioned some approximately 5 nm above the substrate, only a few hundred chains are actually electrochemically contacting the surface, thus reducing the size of the tip-substrate interaction area to 20-40 nm. Most importantly, we have shown that the tip-borne PEG chains are flexible enough to allow their Fc heads to efficiently "sense" locally the electrochemical reactivity of the substrate, thus validating the working principle of the new AFM-SECM microscopy we propose. This innovative microscopy, we label Tarm (for tip-attached redox mediator)/AFM-SECM, should be particularly suitable for probing the activity of slowly functioning nanometer-sized active sites on surfaces, such as individual enzyme molecules, because it is, by design, free of the diffusional constraints which hamper the characterization of such nanosystems by classical SECM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnès Anne
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Moleculaire, Unité Mixte de Recherche Université-CNRS No. 7591, Université Paris Diderot (Paris 7), 15 rue Jean-Antoine de Baïf, 75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
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31
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Williams CG, Edwards MA, Colley AL, Macpherson JV, Unwin PR. Scanning Micropipet Contact Method for High-Resolution Imaging of Electrode Surface Redox Activity. Anal Chem 2009; 81:2486-95. [DOI: 10.1021/ac802114r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cara G. Williams
- Department of Chemistry, and MOAC Doctoral Training Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, U.K. CV4 7AL
| | - Martin A. Edwards
- Department of Chemistry, and MOAC Doctoral Training Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, U.K. CV4 7AL
| | - Anna L. Colley
- Department of Chemistry, and MOAC Doctoral Training Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, U.K. CV4 7AL
| | - Julie V. Macpherson
- Department of Chemistry, and MOAC Doctoral Training Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, U.K. CV4 7AL
| | - Patrick R. Unwin
- Department of Chemistry, and MOAC Doctoral Training Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, U.K. CV4 7AL
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32
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Electroanalytical properties of haemoglobin in silica-nanocomposite films electrogenerated on pyrolitic graphite electrode. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2008.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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33
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Lu X, Wang Q, Liu X. Review: Recent applications of scanning electrochemical microscopy to the study of charge transfer kinetics. Anal Chim Acta 2007; 601:10-25. [PMID: 17904468 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2007.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2007] [Revised: 08/09/2007] [Accepted: 08/12/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) has been proven to be a valuable technique for the quantitative investigation and surface analysis of a wide range of processes that occur at interfaces. In particular, there is a great deal of interest in studying the kinetics of charge transfer characteristics at the solid/liquid and liquid/liquid interface. This overview outlines recent advances and applications of SECM to the investigation of charge transfer reactions at the solid/liquid interface and liquid/liquid interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoquan Lu
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineer, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou, 730070, PR China
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34
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Shin H, Hesketh PJ, Mizaikoff B, Kranz C. Batch Fabrication of Atomic Force Microscopy Probes with Recessed Integrated Ring Microelectrodes at a Wafer Level. Anal Chem 2007; 79:4769-77. [PMID: 17521168 DOI: 10.1021/ac070598u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A batch fabrication process at the wafer-level integrating ring microelectrodes into atomic force microscopy (AFM) tips is presented. The fabrication process results in bifunctional scanning probes combining atomic force microscopy with scanning electrochemical microscopy (AFM-SECM) with a ring microelectrode integrated at a defined distance above the apex of the AFM tip. Silicon carbide is used as AFM tip material, resulting in reduced mechanical tip wear for extended usage. The presented approach for the probe fabrication is based on batch processing using standard microfabrication techniques, which provides bifunctional scanning probes at a wafer scale and at low cost. Additional benefits of batch fabrication include the high processing reproducibility, uniformity, and tuning of the physical properties of the cantilever for optimized AFM dynamic mode operation. The performance of batch-fabricated bifunctional probes was demonstrated by simultaneous imaging micropatterned platinum structures at a silicon dioxide substrate in intermittent (dynamic) and contact mode, respectively, and feedback mode SECM. In both, intermittent and contact mode, the bifunctional probes provided reliable correlated electrochemical and topographical data. In addition, simulations of the diffusion-limited steady-state currents at the integrated electrode using finite element methods were performed for characterizing the developed probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heungjoo Shin
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
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35
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Wittstock G, Burchardt M, Pust SE, Shen Y, Zhao C. Scanning electrochemical microscopy for direct imaging of reaction rates. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2007; 46:1584-617. [PMID: 17285666 DOI: 10.1002/anie.200602750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 313] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Not only in electrochemistry but also in biology and in membrane transport, localized processes at solid-liquid or liquid-liquid interfaces play an important role at defect sites, pores, or individual cells, but are difficult to characterize by integral investigation. Scanning electrochemical microscopy is suitable for such investigations. After two decades of development, this method is based on a solid theoretical foundation and a large number of demonstrated applications. It offers the possibility of directly imaging heterogeneous reaction rates and locally modifying substrates by electrochemically generated reagents. The applications range from classical electrochemical problems, such as the investigation of localized corrosion and electrocatalytic reactions in fuel cells, sensor surfaces, biochips, and microstructured analysis systems, to mass transport through synthetic membranes, skin and tissue, as well as intercellular communication processes. Moreover, processes can be studied that occur at liquid surfaces and liquid-liquid interfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gunther Wittstock
- Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Institut für Reine und Angewandte Chemie und Institut für Chemie und Biologie des Meeres, 26111 Oldenburg, Germany.
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36
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Wittstock G, Burchardt M, Pust S, Shen Y, Zhao C. Elektrochemische Rastermikroskopie zur direkten Abbildung von Reaktionsgeschwindigkeiten. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200602750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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37
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Etienne M, Dierkes P, Erichsen T, Schuhmann W, Fritsch I. Constant-Distance Mode Scanning Potentiometry. High Resolution pH Measurements in Three-Dimensions. ELECTROANAL 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.200603735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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