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Maeda T, Kanamori R, Choi YJ, Taki M, Noda T, Sawada K, Takahashi K. Bio-Interface on Freestanding Nanosheet of Microelectromechanical System Optical Interferometric Immunosensor for Label-Free Attomolar Prostate Cancer Marker Detection. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22041356. [PMID: 35214266 PMCID: PMC8963056 DOI: 10.3390/s22041356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 01/29/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Various biosensors that are based on microfabrication technology have been developed as point-of-care testing devices for disease screening. The Fabry–Pérot interferometric (FPI) surface-stress sensor was developed to improve detection sensitivity by performing label-free biomarker detection as a nanomechanical deflection of a freestanding membrane to adsorb the molecules. However, chemically functionalizing the freestanding nanosheet with excellent stress sensitivity for selective molecular detection may cause the surface chemical reaction to deteriorate the nanosheet quality. In this study, we developed a minimally invasive chemical functionalization technique to create a biosolid interface on the freestanding nanosheet of a microelectromechanical system optical interferometric surface-stress immunosensor. For receptor immobilization, glutaraldehyde cross-linking on the surface of the amino-functionalized parylene membrane reduced the shape variation of the freestanding nanosheet to 1/5–1/10 of the previous study and achieved a yield of 95%. In addition, the FPI surface-stress sensor demonstrated molecular selectivity and concentration dependence for prostate-specific antigen with a dynamic range of concentrations from 100 ag/mL to 1 µg/mL. In addition, the minimum limit of detection of the proposed sensor was 2,000,000 times lower than that of the conventional nanomechanical cantilevers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoya Maeda
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Information Engineering, Toyohashi University of Technology, Toyohashi 441-8580, Japan; (T.M.); (R.K.); (Y.-J.C.); (M.T.); (T.N.); (K.S.)
| | - Ryoto Kanamori
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Information Engineering, Toyohashi University of Technology, Toyohashi 441-8580, Japan; (T.M.); (R.K.); (Y.-J.C.); (M.T.); (T.N.); (K.S.)
| | - Yong-Joon Choi
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Information Engineering, Toyohashi University of Technology, Toyohashi 441-8580, Japan; (T.M.); (R.K.); (Y.-J.C.); (M.T.); (T.N.); (K.S.)
| | - Miki Taki
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Information Engineering, Toyohashi University of Technology, Toyohashi 441-8580, Japan; (T.M.); (R.K.); (Y.-J.C.); (M.T.); (T.N.); (K.S.)
| | - Toshihiko Noda
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Information Engineering, Toyohashi University of Technology, Toyohashi 441-8580, Japan; (T.M.); (R.K.); (Y.-J.C.); (M.T.); (T.N.); (K.S.)
- Electronics Inspired-Interdisciplinary Research Institute (EIIRIS), Toyohashi University of Technology, Toyohashi 441-8580, Japan
| | - Kazuaki Sawada
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Information Engineering, Toyohashi University of Technology, Toyohashi 441-8580, Japan; (T.M.); (R.K.); (Y.-J.C.); (M.T.); (T.N.); (K.S.)
- Electronics Inspired-Interdisciplinary Research Institute (EIIRIS), Toyohashi University of Technology, Toyohashi 441-8580, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Takahashi
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Information Engineering, Toyohashi University of Technology, Toyohashi 441-8580, Japan; (T.M.); (R.K.); (Y.-J.C.); (M.T.); (T.N.); (K.S.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-532-44-6740
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Jia H, Xu P, Li X. Integrated Resonant Micro/Nano Gravimetric Sensors for Bio/Chemical Detection in Air and Liquid. MICROMACHINES 2021; 12:mi12060645. [PMID: 34073049 PMCID: PMC8227694 DOI: 10.3390/mi12060645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Resonant micro/nanoelectromechanical systems (MEMS/NEMS) with on-chip integrated excitation and readout components, exhibit exquisite gravimetric sensitivities which have greatly advanced the bio/chemical sensor technologies in the past two decades. This paper reviews the development of integrated MEMS/NEMS resonators for bio/chemical sensing applications mainly in air and liquid. Different vibrational modes (bending, torsional, in-plane, and extensional modes) have been exploited to enhance the quality (Q) factors and mass sensing performance in viscous media. Such resonant mass sensors have shown great potential in detecting many kinds of trace analytes in gas and liquid phases, such as chemical vapors, volatile organic compounds, pollutant gases, bacteria, biomarkers, and DNA. The integrated MEMS/NEMS mass sensors will continuously push the detection limit of trace bio/chemical molecules and bring a better understanding of gas/nanomaterial interaction and molecular binding mechanisms.
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Stewart KME, Al‐Ghamdi M, Khater M, Abdel‐Rahman EM, Penlidis A. An overview of sensors and sensing materials for heavy metals in aqueous environments. CAN J CHEM ENG 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/cjce.24139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Majed Al‐Ghamdi
- National Center for Electronics and Photonics Technology, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST) Riyadh Saudi Arabia
| | - Mahmoud Khater
- Department of Mechanical Engineering KFUPM Dhahran Saudi Arabia
| | - Eihab M. Abdel‐Rahman
- Department of Systems Design Engineering University of Waterloo Waterloo Ontario Canada
| | - Alexander Penlidis
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute for Polymer Research University of Waterloo Waterloo Ontario Canada
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Microcantilever: Dynamical Response for Mass Sensing and Fluid Characterization. SENSORS 2020; 21:s21010115. [PMID: 33375431 PMCID: PMC7795892 DOI: 10.3390/s21010115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 12/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
A microcantilever is a suspended micro-scale beam structure supported at one end which can bend and/or vibrate when subjected to a load. Microcantilevers are one of the most fundamental miniaturized devices used in microelectromechanical systems and are ubiquitous in sensing, imaging, time reference, and biological/biomedical applications. They are typically built using micro and nanofabrication techniques derived from the microelectronics industry and can involve microelectronics-related materials, polymeric materials, and biological materials. This work presents a comprehensive review of the rich dynamical response of a microcantilever and how it has been used for measuring the mass and rheological properties of Newtonian/non-Newtonian fluids in real time, in ever-decreasing space and time scales, and with unprecedented resolution.
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Yu H, Chen Y, Xu P, Xu T, Bao Y, Li X. μ-'Diving suit' for liquid-phase high-Q resonant detection. LAB ON A CHIP 2016; 16:902-910. [PMID: 26829920 DOI: 10.1039/c5lc01187f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
A resonant cantilever sensor is, for the first time, dressed in a water-proof 'diving suit' for real-time bio/chemical detection in liquid. The μ-'diving suit' technology can effectively avoid not only unsustainable resonance due to heavy liquid-damping, but also inevitable nonspecific adsorption on the cantilever body. Such a novel technology ensures long-time high-Q resonance of the cantilever in solution environment for real-time trace-concentration bio/chemical detection and analysis. After the formation of the integrated resonant micro-cantilever, a patterned photoresist and hydrophobic parylene thin-film are sequentially formed on top of the cantilever as sacrificial layer and water-proof coat, respectively. After sacrificial-layer release, an air gap is formed between the parylene coat and the cantilever to protect the resonant cantilever from heavy liquid damping effect. Only a small sensing-pool area, located at the cantilever free-end and locally coated with specific sensing-material, is exposed to the liquid analyte for gravimetric detection. The specifically adsorbed analyte mass can be real-time detected by recording the frequency-shift signal. In order to secure vibration movement of the cantilever and, simultaneously, reject liquid leakage from the sensing-pool region, a hydrophobic parylene made narrow slit structure is designed surrounding the sensing-pool. The anti-leakage effect of the narrow slit and damping limited resonance Q-factor are modelled and optimally designed. Integrated with electro-thermal resonance excitation and piezoresistive frequency readout, the cantilever is embedded in a micro-fluidic chip to form a lab-chip micro-system for liquid-phase bio/chemical detection. Experimental results show the Q-factor of 23 in water and longer than 20 hours liquid-phase continuous working time. Loaded with two kinds of sensing-materials at the sensing-pools, two types of sensing chips successfully show real-time liquid-phase detection to ppb-level organophosphorous pesticide of acephate and E.coli DH5α in PBS, respectively. The proposed method fundamentally solves the long-standing problem of being unable to operate a resonant micro-sensor in liquid well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haitao Yu
- State Key Lab of Transducer Technology, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 865 Changning Road, Shanghai 200050, China.
| | - Ying Chen
- State Key Lab of Transducer Technology, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 865 Changning Road, Shanghai 200050, China.
| | - Pengcheng Xu
- State Key Lab of Transducer Technology, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 865 Changning Road, Shanghai 200050, China.
| | - Tiegang Xu
- State Key Lab of Transducer Technology, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 865 Changning Road, Shanghai 200050, China.
| | - Yuyang Bao
- State Key Lab of Transducer Technology, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 865 Changning Road, Shanghai 200050, China.
| | - Xinxin Li
- State Key Lab of Transducer Technology, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 865 Changning Road, Shanghai 200050, China.
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Shiba K, Imamura G, Yoshikawa G. Nanomechanical Sensors. BIOMATERIALS NANOARCHITECTONICS 2016. [PMCID: PMC7152471 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-37127-8.00011-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This chapter introduces nanomechanical sensors and their applications. All molecules have “volume” and “mass.” Direct measurement of these fundamental parameters can realize label-free and real-time measurements. Nanomechanical sensors have been emerging as a key device for such label-free and real-time measurements with their multiple operation modes; static and dynamic modes for detecting volume- and mass-related features, respectively. A cantilever array sensor is a representative example among various geometries, while structural optimization can enhance the scope of nanomechanical sensors in both academic and industrial applications. One of the most advanced sensing platforms is a membrane-type surface stress sensor (MSS), which realizes both high sensitivity and compact system at the same time. The MSS is also expected to contribute to addressing nanomechanical behavior of living cells and their network.
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Xu T, Yu H, Xu P, Xu W, Chen W, Chen C, Li X. Real-time enzyme-digesting identification of double-strand DNA in a resonance-cantilever embedded micro-chamber. LAB ON A CHIP 2014; 14:1206-1214. [PMID: 24496267 DOI: 10.1039/c3lc51294k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
A novel direct identification of double-strand DNA is proposed by using real-time enzyme-digestion in a resonant-cantilever embedded microfluidic chip. The new gene-level detection method is expected to replace the conventional DNA-hybridization based gene-detection that suffers from not only nonspecific adsorption induced false-positives but also complicated single-strand DNA preparation and hybridization. Since a detected DNA chain features a unique cutting site for a certain restriction-enzyme, the accurately cut-off mass (representing the length of the digested segment) can be online recorded by the frequency-shift signal of the resonant micro-cantilever sensor. This enzyme-digestion technique is confirmed by experimental identification of the stx2 gene of E. coli O157:H7. The direct-PCR sample is directly analyzed by using our lab-made cantilever-embedded microfluidic-chip. The 3776 bp DNA is immobilized via biotin-streptavidin binding and the added mass is recorded by a frequency-decrease of 15.9 kHz within 10 min. Then, with EcoRV-enzyme digestion at the site of 2635 bp, the cut-off mass is real-time detected by a frequency-increase of 10.2 kHz within 6 min. The detected frequency-shift ratio of 15.9/10.2 = 64.2% is consistent with the length ratio between the cut-off fragment and the whole DNA chain (2635/3776 = 69.8%). Hence, the simple and accurate double-strand detection method is verified experimentally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiegang Xu
- State Key Lab of Transducer Technology and Science and Technology on Microsystem Lab, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 865 Changning Road, Shanghai 200050, China.
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Hwang MJ, Shim WG, Moon H. A QCM-based Sensor System for Detecting NO 2and SO 2. KOREAN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING RESEARCH 2013. [DOI: 10.9713/kcer.2013.51.2.285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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9
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Chen Y, Xu P, Li X. Axial-Stressed Piezoresistive Nanobeam for Ultrahigh Chemomechanical Sensitivity to Molecular Adsorption. Anal Chem 2012; 84:8184-9. [DOI: 10.1021/ac301388k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ying Chen
- State Key
Lab of Transducer Technology, and Science
and Technology on Microsystem Lab, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem
and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 865 Changning Road, Shanghai 200050, China
| | - Pengcheng Xu
- State Key
Lab of Transducer Technology, and Science
and Technology on Microsystem Lab, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem
and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 865 Changning Road, Shanghai 200050, China
| | - Xinxin Li
- State Key
Lab of Transducer Technology, and Science
and Technology on Microsystem Lab, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem
and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 865 Changning Road, Shanghai 200050, China
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Johnson BN, Mutharasan R. Biosensing using dynamic-mode cantilever sensors: a review. Biosens Bioelectron 2011; 32:1-18. [PMID: 22119230 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2011.10.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2011] [Revised: 10/25/2011] [Accepted: 10/27/2011] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Current progress on the use of dynamic-mode cantilever sensors for biosensing applications is critically reviewed. We summarize their use in biosensing applications to date with focus given to: cantilever size (milli-, micro-, and nano-cantilevers), their geometry, and material used in fabrication. The review also addresses techniques investigated for both exciting and measuring cantilever resonance in various environments (vacuum, air, and liquid). Biological targets that have been detected to date are summarized with attention to bio-recognition chemistry, surface functionalization method, limit of detection, resonant frequency mode type, and resonant frequency measurement scheme. Applications published to date are summarized in a comprehensive table with description of the aforementioned details including comparison of sensitivities. Further, the general theory of cantilever resonance is discussed including fluid-structure interaction and its dependence on the Reynolds number for Newtonian fluids. The review covers designs with frequencies ranging from ∼1 kHz to 10 MHz and cantilever size ranging from millimeters to nanometers. We conclude by identifying areas that require further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blake N Johnson
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, United States
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Truax SB, Demirci KS, Beardslee LA, Luzinova Y, Hierlemann A, Mizaikoff B, Brand O. Mass-sensitive detection of gas-phase volatile organics using disk microresonators. Anal Chem 2011; 83:3305-11. [PMID: 21469667 DOI: 10.1021/ac1029902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The detection of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the gas phase by mass-sensitive disk microresonators is reported. The disk resonators were fabricated using a CMOS-compatible silicon micromachining process and subsequently placed in an amplifying feedback loop to sustain oscillation. Sensing of benzene, toluene, and xylene was conducted after applying controlled coatings of an analyte-absorbing polymer. An analytical model of the resonator's chemical sensing performance was developed and verified by the experimental data. Limits of detection for the analytes tested were obtained, modeled, and compared to values obtained from other mass-sensitive resonant gas sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart B Truax
- Georgia Institute of Technology, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Atlanta, 30332, United States.
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Buchapudi KR, Huang X, Yang X, Ji HF, Thundat T. Microcantilever biosensors for chemicals and bioorganisms. Analyst 2011; 136:1539-56. [PMID: 21394347 DOI: 10.1039/c0an01007c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
In the last fifteen years, microcantilevers (MCLs) have been emerging as a sensitive tool for the detection of chemicals and bioorganisms. Because of their small size, lightweight, and high surface-to-volume ratio, MCL-based sensors improve our capability to detect and identify biological agents by orders of magnitude. A biosensor is a device for the detection of an analyte that combines a biological component with a physicochemical detector component. The MCL biosensors have recently been reviewed in several papers. All of these papers were organized based on the sensing biological elements (antibody, enzyme, proteins, etc.) for recognition of analytes. In this review, we intend to summarize the microcantilever biosensors in a format of each specific chemical and bioorganism species to make information on individual biosensors easily accessible. We did this to aid researchers to locate relevant references.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koutilya R Buchapudi
- Institute for Micromanufacturing, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA 71272, USA
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Beardslee LA, Demirci KS, Luzinova Y, Mizaikoff B, Heinrich SM, Josse F, Brand O. Liquid-phase chemical sensing using lateral mode resonant cantilevers. Anal Chem 2011; 82:7542-9. [PMID: 20715842 DOI: 10.1021/ac1010102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Liquid-phase operation of resonant cantilevers vibrating in an out-of-plane flexural mode has to date been limited by the considerable fluid damping and the resulting low quality factors (Q factors). To reduce fluid damping in liquids and to improve the detection limit for liquid-phase sensing applications, resonant cantilever transducers vibrating in their in-plane rather than their out-of-plane flexural resonant mode have been fabricated and shown to have Q factors up to 67 in water (up to 4300 in air). In the present work, resonant cantilevers, thermally excited in an in-plane flexural mode, are investigated and applied as sensors for volatile organic compounds in water. The cantilevers are fabricated using a complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) compatible fabrication process based on bulk micromachining. The devices were coated with chemically sensitive polymers allowing for analyte sorption into the polymer. Poly(isobutylene) (PIB) and poly(ethylene-co-propylene) (EPCO) were investigated as sensitive layers with seven different analytes screened with PIB and 12 analytes tested with EPCO. Analyte concentrations in the range of 1-100 ppm have been measured in the present experiments, and detection limits in the parts per billion concentration range have been estimated for the polymer-coated cantilevers exposed to volatile organics in water. These results demonstrate significantly improved sensing properties in liquids and indicate the potential of cantilever-type mass-sensitive chemical sensors operating in their in-plane rather than out-of-plane flexural modes.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Beardslee
- Microelectronics Research Center, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA.
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Bompart M, Haupt K, Ayela C. Micro and Nanofabrication of Molecularly Imprinted Polymers. Top Curr Chem (Cham) 2011; 325:83-110. [DOI: 10.1007/128_2011_308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Real-time monitoring of the strand displacement amplification (SDA) of human cytomegalovirus by a new SDA-piezoelectric DNA sensor system. Biosens Bioelectron 2009; 24:3412-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2009.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2009] [Revised: 06/03/2009] [Accepted: 06/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Cox R, Josse F, Wenzel MJ, Heinrich SM, Dufour I. Generalized Model of Resonant Polymer-Coated Microcantilevers in Viscous Liquid Media. Anal Chem 2008; 80:5760-7. [DOI: 10.1021/ac800269x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Russell Cox
- Microsensor Research Laboratory and Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53223, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201, and IMS Laboratory, Université Bordeaux 1, CNRS, Talence, France
| | - Fabien Josse
- Microsensor Research Laboratory and Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53223, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201, and IMS Laboratory, Université Bordeaux 1, CNRS, Talence, France
| | - Michael J. Wenzel
- Microsensor Research Laboratory and Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53223, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201, and IMS Laboratory, Université Bordeaux 1, CNRS, Talence, France
| | - Stephen M. Heinrich
- Microsensor Research Laboratory and Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53223, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201, and IMS Laboratory, Université Bordeaux 1, CNRS, Talence, France
| | - Isabelle Dufour
- Microsensor Research Laboratory and Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53223, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201, and IMS Laboratory, Université Bordeaux 1, CNRS, Talence, France
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